Belgian archaeologists digging at the site of the ancient Roman city of Sagalassos in southwestern Turkey recently unearthed a most unusual burial. The tomb held the cremated remains of a man who’d lived in the second century AD, and what made this burial so remarkable is that it was sealed with two dozen bricks and an additional layer of plaster. Topping everything off, more than three dozen bent nails were sprinkled around the edges of the tomb as well, presumably as magic talismans meant to keep the deceased person trapped inside.
According to the Belgian archaeologists, all these steps were taken to prevent the return of a wandering spirit, who might have the capability of rising from the grave even after cremation. In an article just published in the journal Antiquity, the study authors explained that the ancient Romans feared the “restless dead” and would take magical precautions to protect themselves from these potentially dangerous beings.
"The burial was closed off with not one, not two, but three different ways that can be understood as attempts to shield the living from the dead—or the other way around," study first author Johan Claeys , an archaeologist at Catholic University Leuven (KU Leuven) in Belgium, told Live Science .
Claeys confirmed that the use of bricks and/or plaster to seal a grave, and the sprinkling of bent nails on a tomb, had all been seen before. But he noted that this was the first time a Roman grave had been found that used all three magical sealing methods simultaneously, implying that the people must have been especially fearful that this individual planned to return from the dead very soon.
A Strange Burial Indeed in Sagalassos The ancient site of Sagalassos was continuously occupied for approximately 1,500 years, from the third century BC through the 13th century AD. It became a Roman possession in the first century BC, and rose to its greatest prominence during its Roman period.
The village and future city was constructed on the slopes of the Taurus Mountain range in what is now southwestern Turkey, and it was surrounded by lakes on all sides. Its remote geography has largely protected Sagalassos from looting and pillaging by antiquities thieves, and today it remains one of the best preserved ancient urban sites in the Mediterranean region.
Because the ancient city was so well preserved, archaeologists have been able to find numerous buildings and facilities constructed during Roman times , including a theater and a bath complex. Under the auspices of the ongoing Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project , excavations were carried out in cemeteries on the edges of the city, and many Roman-era cremation pyre remains and intact burials have been uncovered as a result of this work.
But none stand out like the “non-normative” cremation and subsequent burial of the man sealed in with bricks, plaster and bent nails. In addition to the anomalous presence of the masonry layers and magical talismans, the tomb was also unusual because the cremation and burial took place in the same spot (the ashes and unburned remnants of cremated bodies were normally entombed elsewhere). The bricks and plaster were actually lain over the burned body while the funeral pyre was still hot and smoking, highlighting how determined the people of Sagalassos were to get the person buried and sealed in as quickly as possible.
Cremation area (right) and two middle-imperial Roman tombs under excavation. (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project/ Antiquity Publications Ltd )
Looking inside the grave, the Belgian archaeologists found both ashes and charred but not fully burned bones, the latter of which they used to confirm that the individual was male. They also found a reasonably rich collection of grave goods that suggested the deceased man was beloved by his family. The items buried beside his remains included finely-made ceramic and glass vessels, a Roman coin, pieces of a skillfully woven basket and the remnants of some food.
"It seems clear that the deceased was buried with all appropriate aplomb," Claeys stated. "It seems likely that was the suitable way of parting with a loved one at the time."
Claeys thinks that the man’s family were responsible for all aspects of his burial. They resorted to magical means to make sure he stayed safe, sound and secure in his grave, presumably until the time came for him to complete his transition to the afterlife.
Fear the Walking Dead “The combination of nails and bricks designed to restrain the dead with the sealing effect of the lime strongly implies a fear of the restless dead,” the authors of the new study wrote in their Antiquity article. “Regardless of whether the cause of death was traumatic, mysterious or potentially the result of a contagious illness or punishment, it appears to have left the dead intent on retaliation and the living fearful of the deceased's return.”
Dead nails. Upper left) bent and twisted nails from the primary cremation at Site F; lower left) nails from an ash pit with cremation remains at the same site; right) examples of coffin nails from two individual separate inhumations from the same site (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project/ Antiquity Publications Ltd )
It is certainly possible that the grave was done to suppress a vengeful spirit. But it’s also possible that the person’s family members were worried about their loved one being exploited in the afterlife by a practitioner of the black arts.
In the Greek and Roman black magic traditions of antiquity, a fear of ghosts or restless spirits provided a frequent motivation for spellcasting. People feared the damage restless spirits might inflict if they found a way to return to the land of the living, and sometimes actions needed to be taken to ensure they stayed where they were.
The primary risk was from the spirits of those who’d died prematurely, by accident, murder, sudden illness or unexpected natural disaster. They would remain trapped in the earthly realm until the date of their scheduled natural deaths arrived, it was said, after which they would finally be free to depart for the afterworld.
But until that day of liberation, such spirits were vulnerable to the evil intentions of necromancers, a type of wizard or witch who could raise the dead and compel them to do their bidding. Supposedly, the necromancer would create a curse tablet made of papyrus, and then roll it up and sneakily insert it into the grave of a prematurely deceased spirit. Afterwards they would raise their poor victim from the dead and force them to become their servant.
In contrast to their concern with ghosts, the Romans were not particularly worried about reanimated zombies ( cremation was the norm in the ancient Roman world, which pretty much eliminated the zombie risk) or vampires. So it seems possible (and maybe likely) that the special precautions taken to keep the man sealed inside the newly discovered grave in Sagalassos were taken out of a fear that he might be exploited by a necromancer. If this is the case, the man’s family would have been trying to protect both their loved one and their community, through the use of a type of magic that was commonly practiced in the ancient Greek and Roman world.
Top image: Dead nails found in the Roman grave in Sagalassos to protect the living or the dead. Source: © Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project/ Antiquity Publications Ltd
By Nathan Falde
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the Top 5 Innovations in Human History?
The most important innovation in human history was the discovery of fire. Fire changed our relationship with nature forever. It enabled us to heat our homes in cold weather and cook delicious food. It allowed us to control light and heat as well as electricity.
Fire enabled us to create tools, weapons, and even cities.
Humans, as a species, have become more intelligent thanks to fire. We were able to communicate more effectively, learn faster, and travel further.
Shortly after, the inventions of writing, printing, gunpowder, and printing followed. These inventions made it much easier for information to be shared.
These technological advancements brought social changes. To protect, secure, and provide comfort, people began living in groups.
Human beings started to gather into larger groups and eventually became nations. This led to the development and acceptance of laws and religions.
Finally, access to medicine and sanitation was possible. The rise of the middle classes was a result of these advancements.
All these inventions created a place where humanity can thrive. The cave was finally cleared out by humanity.
Technology is changing the world today. We continue to develop new technologies that make life easier, safer, and more convenient.
Despite all the progress we have made, there are still many challenges. Climate change is one of these challenges.
Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas releases carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.
The earth's surface is heated by carbon dioxide, which traps heat and makes temperatures rise.
This causes glaciers to melt, which then leads to sea level rises. Coral reefs die as the oceans heat up.
This renders coastal areas non-habitable.
Millions of people are now forced to move. Many countries have declared war on climate change.
We can't stop inventing new technologies, despite all of this. Why not? Because we will not survive if it happens.
What were major inventions in the early history of mankind?
Now think about the greatest invention in human history. Now, imagine an inventor creating a device that allows us to do exactly the same thing for even greater numbers of people.
What would it look like? What would it look like? Is it possible to change the entire world? How would you go about it if you had the opportunity to create such a device?
Answering these questions will help to determine where innovation begins.
Innovation is the ability solve problems in new and useful ways. Innovation is the key to solving any issue. Innovation means creating something entirely new.
Let's now look at the difference between innovation and invention. Invention is the act or process of creating something new. Innovation is the act that improves upon an existing product. For example, the wheel was invented long before it was improved upon through the creation of the bicycle.
Both innovations and inventions require imagination and creativity. They also require different skills. A true innovator is able see beyond what others cannot. They are able identify problems, think outside the box and find solutions.
An investor can envision possibilities. Investors can transform a concept into a reality. They are able understand and explain their ideas to others so they can be followed.
Innovation requires imagination. It requires being creative. It takes creativity.
An investor must be willing and able to think differently. To move beyond their comfort zone. To challenge themselves to find unique solutions.
A good inventor understands that the best solution isn't always the easiest. Sometimes, the hardest part of the process is finding the right question.
An inventor doesn't want to solve one problem. They want to improve something. They want to make it better.
When you are considering your next invention, there are two options.
- You have two options.
- You can improve on what already exists.
If you choose to improve, you should know that the first step is defining a problem. Next, find out if anyone else has solved the problem.
Sometimes, the problem you are trying to solve is no longer valid because it has changed over time. This is called obsolescence.
Another reason innovation failures are common is because the market is saturated. There are too many products on the market for consumers to choose from. The demand for a product therefore is low.
This is why niche markets or specific industries are important. These are areas with potential growth.
However, remember that the market may not yet be ready for your product. Test your idea. Please try it. It is worth testing to see if it is popular.
And finally, don't forget to ask yourself if your idea is worth pursuing. Does your idea really make a difference? Is it going to improve on something that works?
To innovate, you need to step out of your comfort zone. You must push yourself to think outside the box. You should be open to learning more about the topic.
You should always be open to new ideas. It is best to make mistakes.
Failure is the only way that you will discover what is possible. Failure is the only way to learn how to succeed.
Which is the most significant achievement in the field medicine?
The discovery of penicillin revolutionized modern medicine. Alexander Fleming was unaware of the importance of his mold when he discovered it. His discovery was the catalyst for antibiotics being developed, saving millions of lives.
This breakthrough made the world a better place. We live longer and healthier lives today.
But Fleming did more than discover an antibiotic. He also devised a way to grow large quantities of bacteria. This meant that scientists could study them for the first time.
Fleming's discovery provided us with insights into our bodies, and helped us to understand diseases in ways we could not have imagined. It enabled doctors to determine the cause of tuberculosis.
The discovery of penicillin brought about a change in public health policy. People with infections like meningitis and pneumonia were previously treated with toxic drugs.
In contrast, patients can be treated after penicillin became available without having to risk their lives.
Since its invention, penicillin is used to treat bacterial infected. Penicillin is today considered to be the greatest medical advance of all time.
Fleming’s breakthrough is noteworthy for two reasons. First, Fleming was working alone and is isolated from the rest.
Second, he published his findings at Nature.
He was able to publish the results of his research because he knew exactly how it had turned out. He was a pioneer.
He didn't know where his research would lead, but he followed his instincts. It paid off. This is why I consider him the father of microbiology.
Alexander Fleming died in 1955, aged 65. He worked at St Mary's Hospital in London for his entire working life.
He returned to Scotland after he retired. He lived there until his passing.
What have been the greatest achievements made by humanity in the last fifty years?
Humanity's greatest accomplishment in the last fifty-years is its ability to communicate over great distances with unprecedented speed and accuracy. This is, without doubt, the single most important technological advancement in human history.
What we call 'the internet' is a series of tubes that connect our world. These tubes are made from fiber optic cables. Each cable can transmit data at 10 gigabits per seconds - more then 1 million times faster that the average home broadband connection.
This technology allows us worldwide to share knowledge, ideas, and cultures. Now, you don't have to physically travel across the globe to get any information.
The amazing advances in medicine, science and technology are also due to our ability share information. For example, scientists can now sequence genomes in a fraction of the time it took them to do it twenty years ago.
A technological breakthrough has allowed researchers to create complex biological simulations in real-time. This means that we can finally unlock the secrets of diseases like Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and cancer.
These innovations could save millions of people's lives.
This amazing technology has its downsides. For our daily activities, we have come to depend heavily on the internet over recent years. This dependence has caused many problems such as cyberbullying, identity theft, and online scams.
The greatest problem is yet to come. As more people depend on the internet for their daily lives, the likelihood of a global data collapse is rising dramatically.
As our dependence on the internet grows, so does our vulnerability to its failures. Businesses will suffer a loss of billions in productivity if the internet is down even for a brief period. Our health records, financial transactions, and government communications would be compromised.
We're already seeing early signs of what might happen if the internet fails. Take a look back at Hurricane Sandy, which knocked out power supply to many homes and businesses across the eastern United States. Hackers were able to use the internet outage within days to steal credit card numbers.
There are many devices that can be connected to the internet. Your fridge can order food from Amazon. Your car can track traffic and make service reservations. Even your lights are able to be remotely turned off. All of these things are possible because they all have small microprocessors inside them that allow them to communicate with one another through the internet.
These microprocessors couldn't transmit data across networks after Hurricane Sandy. Cars could not start or stop, fridges wouldn't allow food orders, and lights wouldn't turn on. It caused chaos and confusion in an emergency.
The same could happen during a national crisis like a natural disaster or terrorist attack. Imagine how difficult would it be for police officers respond to crimes and medical emergencies. Without computers, how would hospitals manage patient care? How about communication between citizens, government agencies and each other?
Good news is that infrastructure is in place to prevent such an event from ever happening. Critical services such as water treatment plants and power plants are already designed to withstand storms similar to hurricanes. However, the systems aren’t meant to withstand an entire loss of electricity from a large-scale hacker attack.
Hackers could, for example, take control of a nuclear facility and shut it down within minutes. They could also infect the water supply and cause panic.
So while the infrastructure exists, the question remains: will we ever get serious about building resilience into the system?
Two scientists at MIT published a 2005 paper titled, "A Failure Model in Cloud Computing." This paper described a future with no single point to fail. Every device is susceptible to many failures. Instead of losing your phone's battery, you might lose your entire device. You will now need to replace both your phone AND computer.
To keep us safe in the past, we could rely on certain key components such as electrical grids or telephone lines. We are putting more of our lives online as we move to cloud-based computing. Technology is being relied on without any testing in real-world situations. This is why we must ensure that the technologies we use are resilient enough to withstand natural disasters, such as hurricanes or cyberattacks.
This is why I am so excited about the work of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST is working with industry experts to develop standards to help us build resiliency into our technology. These standards will ensure that everything functions seamlessly online. Our phones can still function even when the power goes off. Our refrigerators still order us dinner. Our traffic reports still tell us what roads are clear.
By ensuring that our devices communicate with each other, we can be better prepared for any eventuality.
What are the greatest achievements made by humans
Humans created technology such as the printing press (printing press), radio, television, computers, and mobile phones (television, computers, etc.). Many people credit these inventions with changing our lives in profound ways. However, we may also wonder how much of an impact these inventions had on us.
The Internet has revolutionized almost every aspect and aspect of our lives. Information, entertainment and shopping are all possible now. This list could be endless.
There are many examples of inventions that affect our daily lives. The inventions of automobiles and planes made it easier to travel faster. Our modern world runs smoothly because of innovations such as electricity and air conditioning.
Technology is constantly changing our lives. There are many innovations that improve the quality of our lives, including smartphones, tablets laptops, smartwatches, self-driving autos, virtual reality/artificial intelligence (AI), and augmented reality.
Technology is constantly evolving. There are always new inventions, making it difficult to stay on top of the technology curve. So, it's important to learn about the latest technological advancements.
To help you do that, here are 10 amazing inventions that changed our lives.
- Printing Press
- Radio
- Television
- Computers
- Mobile Phones
- Airplanes
- Refrigerator
- Microwave
- Laptop
- Digital Camera
People today love living in a high-tech society. This is something that was impossible centuries ago. But the printing press was invented and books are now available to everyone. Books were once reserved for priests, monks, and royalty. Anyone can now read.
Our daily lives are enriched by books. They are used daily by people to learn, study, and get informed. You may not know, but some parts are necessary for reading. Books can be interacted with by the ears, eyes as well as nose, mouth, nose, fingers, toes, and nose.
Books are useful for learning, but do you know where else they are used? You can use them to do hobbies, work, or exercise. To draw from a picture book is one way to learn; to write stories is another.
When you next pick up a book think about all the possibilities. You may be surprised at what new uses it can have.
Which invention has caused the greatest harm to the earth?
The most useful inventions can make our lives easier. But not all inventions are good.
One example is the internal combustion motor. This invention was a key to the industrial revolution, and has made our lives much easier. However, global warming can be caused by carbon dioxide released when fossil fuels are burned for energy.
Laser is another invention. The laser can be used to destroy objects up to a mile away. Unfortunately, it can also cause blindness, burns, and even death.
Another example is that of the atomic Bomb. This weapon can explode and wipe out entire cities.
Inventions are amazing because they make life easier. But, they can also cause us harm. These harmful inventions include nuclear weapons, lasers, internal combustion engines, and atomic bombs.
Statistics
- Retrieved April 26, 2015. Sequence differences from the human genome were confirmed to be ∼1% in areas that can be precisely aligned, representing ∼35 million single base-pair differences. (en.wikipedia.org)
- This migration out of Africa is estimated to have begun about 70–50,000 years BP, and modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing earlier hominins either through competition or hybridization. (en.wikipedia.org)
- H. antecessoris knew from fossils from Spain and England that are dated 1.2 Ma–500ka.[205][206]refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old. (en.wikipedia.org)
- dating of two H.nalediteeth, to 253+82−70 ka, for an estimated age of the fossils of 253+82−17 ka. (en.wikipedia.org)
- The linear view of human evolution began to be abandoned in the 1970s as different species of humans were discovered, which made the linear concept increasingly unlikely. (en.wikipedia.org)
External Links
nytimes.com
- Grappling With The Cost Of Saving Earth’s Ozone (Published in 1990)
- For Evolving Brains: A 'Paleo" Diet of Carbs. The New York Times
web.archive.org
en.wikipedia.org
nature.com
How To
How toys have changed since World War II
World War II was the most devastating war ever. It spanned 1939-1945 and affected many countries. It was triggered by many factors, including territorial ambitions as well political differences, ideologic conflicts, and economic interest. Many factors contributed to the conflict. These include the rise of dictatorships and nationalism, as well religious intolerance, totalitarianism and militarization. All of these factors led to a global conflict that left millions dead.
The effects of the war had a profound impact on all people. Many people lost homes, their belongings, their families and even their lives due to the war. Many thousands of children were left homeless or orphaned by the deaths of their parents in the conflict. Many countries sustained severe damage to their infrastructures such as roads, bridges and factories. This caused a loss in productivity, economy, trade, and other consequences. Other countries were affected by social unrest as well, including poverty, hunger, lack of education, unemployment, and starvation.
After the war was over, countries started to rebuild their economies and infrastructure. However, there were some problems such as the shortage of raw materials and labor force. They had to also overcome the effects from war, which took many decades to recover.
New technologies were developed as a result. For example, the development of nuclear weapons made it easier to destroy cities. Radar systems were also created which enabled planes to fly higher, so that they could avoid enemy fire. Electronic devices such as television, radio and computers have helped spread information faster than ever before.
After the war, toys became more affordable and accessible. The toys were no longer expensive and children didn't have to work very hard to get them. Parents don't have to worry about whether or not their child will spend his/her allowance properly. Instead, toys were sold in large numbers and at low prices. Toy manufacturers also had less competition because they wanted to maximize their profits. This resulted in toys that were better quality.
It is clear that the Second World War's effects did not affect only those who experienced it, but also how we live our lives today. We have learned from the mistakes of the past, and have adapted accordingly. Today, we live better than ever before.
