Historians have often derided the medical cures found in medieval texts as not effective and being just “mere placebo.” However, a new study points out that the ‘Placebo Effect’, being a real thing, could provide relief to patients, even in the Middle Ages. Moreover, medieval physicians understood how to help their patients achieve these benefits.
The study, “It Will Help Him Wonderfully”: Placebo and Meaning Responses in Early Medieval English Medicine,” by Rebecca Brackmann, appears in the latest issue of Speculum. Brackmann, an Associate Professor of English at Lincoln Memorial University, re-examined three texts from early medieval England: Bald’s Leechbook, Leechbook III, and the Old English Herbal, which give prescriptions for various ailments and health issues.
In recent years, medical experts have been looking into these medieval texts to see if the cures they offer can be of use in modern medicine. In 2015, researchers found that a remedy for eye infections could be useful in combatting the superbug MRSA. However, Brackmann was interested in how these texts were written in ways to promote a patient’s response to treatment.
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A typical example from these texts would be this treatment involving the plant known as Betony. The Old English Herbal offers over two dozen remedies with this plant. One example states: “For stomach pain, take two coins’ weight of the same plant, boil gently in water, then give it warm to the person to drink. The stomach pain will diminish and be soothed, so that soon there will not be any pain.”
Many of the prescriptions in these works have language similar to this one, where it notes that the medicine will provide relief to the patient. They can range from “it will help him wonderfully” to “soon it is well.” Brackmann writes:
The compilers believed that these periodic reminders that remedies worked had a purpose in medical writing. To modern readers, however, these statements appear at first to be largely redundant. After all, surely the supposition of the medical texts is that their remedies work; otherwise, why write them? Nonetheless, the Old English and Latin medical texts repeatedly assert that the patient will soon improve, or maintain that salves or drinks are “good medicine.”
While various clinical studies have shown that the ‘Placebo Effect’ has been seen to have a somatic improvement in patients, this efficacy can depend on a number of factors, including an expectation that the cure will help them. Being able to talk with your physician and have them understand your pains or illness can even help alleviate symptoms.
While medieval physicians may not have heard of the term ‘Placebo Effect’, these texts point to ways they understood the importance of making their patients feel that they are getting better. Brackmann explains:
From the patient’s perspective, an early medieval physician telling his or her patient, “You’ve got an excess of bad humors in your stomach,” and proposing a course of dietary adjustments and herbal drinks, would be no less meaningful than the twenty-first-century doctor telling his or her patient, “You have acid reflux,” and prescribing a course of dietary adjustments and a proton-pump inhibitor. Texts remaining from early medieval England indicate that some professional healers were aware of the therapeutic value of disease explanations. Again, we need not assume these doctors knew exactly how such statements worked, only grant that the doctors could have been observant enough to notice that they did. In any case, the texts contain, and probably the physician conveyed, enough of a structural understanding of the body to help articulate and give meaning to somatic experiences, and thereby augment therapeutic interventions. Patient-physician encounters, then, as we glimpse them in the Old English medical texts, followed several patterns that probably would have enhanced meaning and therefore somatic response from the sufferer.
It would not just be with words that physicians could encourage this. Medieval people perhaps saw some colours as having more efficacy than others. In Leechbook III, for example, when dealing with head pain, the text advises they wrap their head with a red bandage. While the choice of such a colour could not seemingly make a difference, perhaps at an unconscious level the patient believed that red would work better, just “as modern American patients “know” that red pills work better than white ones for pain.”
A prescription from Bald’s Leechbook – British Library Royal MS 12 D XVII fol. 14vSome of the prescriptions offered in these early medieval texts are very detailed, having the patient do and say things. Leechbook III offers this remedy:
For pain in the stomach and abdominal pain. When you see a dung beetle in the ground throwing [dirt], grasp him with both hands along with his flung-up [dirt], wave with your hands vehemently and say three times, “Remedium facio ad ventris dolorum.” Then throw the beetle over your back on the road. Be careful not to look after it. When a man’s stomach or abdomen has pain, grasp the stomach with your hands; it will soon be well with him. You can do this for twelve months after [you have caught] the beetle.
While a modern reader could just think that is just some kind of ‘magic’ being talked about, one can also see it as a way for the patient to do something complex to help themselves – the very act, if the patient believes that it can help them, can lead to a meaningful response in their wellbeing.
Brackman’s research focuses only on medical texts from early medieval England, but she notes that similar wording can be seen in the works from other cultures around the medieval world. She encourages other researchers to make use of this study as a model to further understand how medicine worked in the Middle Ages
“I found Rebecca Brackmann’s article very appealing in that it took early English medicine on its own terms and showed that the efficacy of medieval medicine–like modern medicine–may have been activated by the “meaning response” (or placebo effect) as much as anything else,” comments Katherine L. Jansen, editor of Speculum. ”I think her use of modern “meaning response” theory helps us to see medieval medicine in a new more positive light.”
Rebecca Brackmann’s article “It Will Help Him Wonderfully”: Placebo and Meaning Responses in Early Medieval English Medicine,” appears in Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies, Vol: 97:4. The article can be accessed through the University of Chicago Press.
See also: 8th-century medical text lost for centuries has been rediscovered
Top Image: A 13th-century image of a medieval physician with a scroll. British Library MS Harley 1585 fol. 13r
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Frequently Asked Questions
What are the most significant achievements made by mankind over the past 50 years?
This is the greatest accomplishment of humanity in the last 50 years. It allows us to communicate with incredible speed and accuracy over vast distances. This is without doubt, the most significant technological innovation in human history.
What we call the internet is a set of tubes that link our world. These tubes are made from fiber optic cables. Each cable can transmit information at speeds of up to 10 gigabits each second, which is more that 1 million times faster than the average broadband connection.
This technology allows us worldwide to share knowledge, ideas, and cultures. We've gone from having to physically travel to another country to now being able to access any information instantly.
Science and medicine have seen incredible advances due to the ability to exchange information. For example, scientists can now sequence genomes in a fraction of the time it took them to do it twenty years ago.
Researchers can also simulate complex biological processes using technological advancements. This is a breakthrough in our ability to understand the causes of diseases like Parkinson's, Alzheimer's and cancer.
These breakthroughs could save millions.
There are downsides to this amazing technology. In recent years we've come to rely heavily on the internet for our day-to-day activities. This dependence has caused many problems such as cyberbullying, identity theft, and online scams.
But the biggest problem may lie ahead. The risk of a global digital meltdown is increasing as more people rely on the internet.
As we become more dependent on the internet, so does our vulnerability. If the internet goes down, even for a few minutes, businesses could lose billions in productivity. Our financial transactions, health records, and government communications could all be compromised.
We're already seeing early signs of what might happen if the internet fails. Remember Hurricane Sandy? It was a storm that knocked out electricity to many homes, businesses and buildings in the eastern United States. Within days, hackers were using the internet outage to steal credit card numbers.
Look around your house and you will see many devices connected via the internet. Your fridge can order food from Amazon. Your car can check traffic conditions and book service appointments. Even your lights can be remotely turned off. All these things are possible thanks to microprocessors embedded in them. This allows them to communicate via the internet with each other.
When Hurricane Sandy hit the East Coast, these microprocessors could not transmit data across their networks. This meant that cars could not start or stop engines, refrigerators couldn't order food and lights couldn’t turn off. It caused chaos and confusion during an emergency.
This could be true in the event of a national crisis such as a natural or terrorist attack. Imagine how difficult and time-consuming it would be to respond in an emergency or to crimes. Without computers, how would hospitals manage patient care? What about communication among citizens and government agencies
The good news is that the infrastructure needed to prevent something like this from happening is already in place. Water treatment facilities, power plants, and other vital services have been built to withstand hurricane-like events. But, these systems aren’t built to withstand the complete loss of electricity caused by large-scale cyberattacks.
Hackers could, for example, take control of a nuclear facility and shut it down within minutes. They could also infect the water supply and cause panic.
The infrastructure is there, but the question is: Will we ever be serious about building resilience to the system?
Two scientists from MIT published a 2005 paper called "A Failure Model For Cloud Computing". They presented a future in which there is no single point of failure. Instead, every device has multiple points of failure. Imagine your smartphone losing its battery and your laptop both. Both your phone and computer will need to be repaired.
In the past, we've been able to rely on a few key components like electrical grids and telephone lines to keep us safe. We are putting more of our lives online as we move to cloud-based computing. We're trusting technologies that have not been extensively tested under real-world conditions. It's important that we do this to ensure that our technologies are resilient enough in the face of disasters like massive cyberattacks and hurricanes.
That's why I'm excited about the work being done by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). NIST collaborates with industry experts to establish standards that help us build resilience to our technology. These standards will ensure that everything functions seamlessly online. Even if power goes out, phones will still work. Our refrigerators still order us dinner. Traffic reports tell us where the roads are.
We will be better prepared for any type of event if all our devices are able to communicate.
Which invention is the worst?
The most useful inventions can make our lives easier. But not all inventions are good.
The internal combustion engine is one example of such an invention. This invention fueled the industrial revolution and made our lives more convenient. However, when we use fossil fuels for energy, we also release carbon dioxide, which contributes to global warming.
The laser is another invention. This laser can also be used to dismantle objects far away. It can also cause blindness or burns that can lead to death.
Another example is that of the atomic Bomb. This weapon can explode and wipe out entire cities.
Inventions can make our lives better. They can also be harmful. These dangerous inventions include nuclear weapons and lasers, as well as internal combustion engines and atomic bombs.
What is the most outstanding achievement in the field of medicine?
Modern medicine has been revolutionized by penicillin's discovery. Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin was a surprise to him. His discovery led directly towards the creation of antibiotics which saved millions of people's lives.
This breakthrough changed everything. We live longer and healthier lives today.
Fleming didn't just discover an antibiotic. He also developed a method of growing bacteria in large amounts. This enabled scientists to study them for their first time.
Fleming’s discovery opened up new perspectives on our bodies and diseases that were not possible before. It helped doctors identify tuberculosis' cause.
The discovery of penicillin led to major changes in public healthcare policy. Before penicillin, infections such as meningitis or pneumonia were treated with toxic medications.
In contrast, patients can be treated after penicillin became available without having to risk their lives.
Penicillin has been used to treat bacterial infections since its invention. Penicillin is today considered to be the greatest medical advance of all time.
Fleming’s discovery is notable for two reasons. First, Fleming worked alone and was isolated from the rest.
Secondly, he published his findings in a journal called Nature.
Because he knew what he had found, he was able to publish his findings. That made him a pioneer.
He wasn't sure where his research would take them, but he went with his gut. It paid off. And that's why I think he deserves recognition as the father of microbiology.
Alexander Fleming, age 65, died on May 25, 1955. He worked at St Mary's Hospital in London for his entire working life.
After his retirement, he returned home to Scotland. He was there until his death.
What is the greatest scientific achievement?
We have made great strides since the day we discovered how fire can be harnessed for heat. But there's still much to do.
Scientists who have an idea and work towards making it a reality have made some of the greatest scientific discoveries. Scientists are often motivated by curiosity.
Sometimes it takes more then curiosity to achieve a breakthrough. Sometimes, you must have a goal. Vision. An ideal goal.
My belief is that the most important scientific discoveries have been made when people pursue an idea with fervor.
They would search for ways to make their dreams come true, even if they didn't know what those realities were at the time.
This means being bold, taking risks, learning from mistakes and thinking big.
The most important lesson is that it doesn't matter whether you succeed or fail. All that matters is your effort.
Finding a way to keep going despite setbacks, criticism, rejection, and failure would be best. You will eventually succeed if you keep trying.
Don't fret about the end result. Be positive along the way.
Which are the Top 5 Human Innovations?
Fire was the most significant innovation in human history. Our relationship with the natural world was forever changed by fire. It enabled us to heat our homes in cold weather and cook delicious food. It also enabled us to control light, heat and electricity.
Fire gave rise to tools, weapons, even cities.
Fire gave us humans the ability to be more intelligent. We could now communicate better, we could learn faster, and we could travel farther.
Shortly after, the inventions of writing, printing, gunpowder, and printing followed. These inventions made sharing information much simpler.
These technological advances brought about social changes. People began to live together in groups to provide protection, safety and comfort.
Human beings began to congregate into larger communities and eventually nations. This resulted in the creation of laws, governments, and religions.
Finally, medical and sanitation became widely available. With these advances came the rise of the middle class.
All of these inventions created an atmosphere where humanity could flourish. Humanity had finally found its way out of the cave.
Technology continues to revolutionize the world. We are always developing new technologies to make your life easier, safer and more convenient.
Although we've come a long way, there are many challenges ahead. One of them is climate.
Climate change is the result of burning fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas releases carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide traps heat near the Earth's surface, causing temperatures to rise.
This causes glaciers melted, which in turn leads to sea levels rising. Coral reefs will die as the oceans warm.
This renders coastal areas non-habitable.
Millions of people have been forced from their homes as a result. Many countries have declared war against climate change.
We can't stop inventing new technologies, despite all of this. Why not? We will die if you do.
What is humanity's greatest achievement?
A great achievement is when you make a difference and when you do something that changes the world for the better. If you create something that's completely different from what was there before.
Great achievement isn't measured by how much money you made or how many people you helped, it's measured by how much impact you had on the world.
We don't find the answers to our greatest problems. The answer is already known. But, the greatest accomplishments are those that change our outlook on life. That changed our outlook.
Many great accomplishments are often small, because they are achieved slowly and quietly. They may not even seem important at the time. But later on, you'll look back and realize how far-reaching an effect they really had.
There are two types to greatness. The one that lasts forever is the best and the one that fades. The greatness that lasts forever is achieved by creating something people have loved and cherished for generations.
That's why great achievements are usually done anonymously because people tend to admire them more when they don't know who did it.
But great achievements fade away quickly. You might not believe what someone tells about them. This is because your brain has conditioned you to think of greatness only as temporary.
Because greatness fades away so easily, it's easy to lose sight of its importance. You could also say that great achievements rarely happen. It is rare that anyone ever achieves them.
Statistics
- In their seminal 1967 paper in, Sarich and Wilson estimated the divergence time of humans and apes as four to five million years ago, Science Progress in DNA sequencing, specifically mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (en.wikipedia.org)
- Some 45 million nucleotides of insertions and deletions unique to each lineage were also discovered, making the actual difference between the two genomes ∼4%. (en.wikipedia.org)
- The linear view of human evolution began to be abandoned in the 1970s as different species of humans were discovered, which made the linear concept increasingly unlikely. (en.wikipedia.org)
- Nonetheless, humans retain a degree of sexual dimorphism in the distribution of body hair, subcutaneous fat, and overall size, with males being around 15% larger than females. (en.wikipedia.org)
- H. antecessoris knew from fossils from Spain and England that are dated 1.2 Ma–500ka.[205][206]refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old. (en.wikipedia.org)
External Links
nytimes.com
- Grappling with Earth's Ozone: Published 1990
- For Evolving Brains: A 'Paleo" Diet of Carbs. The New York Times
doi.org
- The Hybrid Origin of "Modern" Humans - Evolutionary Biology
- ScienceDirect: The Mosaic Humans, a hybrid species
web.archive.org
nature.com
How To
What are the five best examples of innovation?
Innovation is when you can create something new and make life easier for someone else.
Innovation requires an attitude of curiosity, which means asking questions. Not any old questions, but ones that make your uncomfortable.
Being willing to push yourself beyond your comfort zone and ask the questions that you don't know the answers to allows you to see beyond the obvious. To find the answers to questions that nobody else even asks.
It is important to be open-minded and accept the possibility of a different answer.
This isn't easy, though. When we feel safe when we've been told our whole lives that we're right when we're convinced we already know how things ought to be done, it's hard to admit that we don't.
But when we do, we open ourselves up to the possibility of finding something new. Something different. Something innovative.
It is vital to constantly challenge yourself. Keep pushing boundaries. Don't be afraid to challenge your assumptions. You'll see the possibilities everywhere you look once you open your mind to them.
You will begin to see new opportunities and ideas.
You may also discover amazing things all around the globe that no one else has.
So what can you do to become more curious? These are some suggestions to help you get started.
- Ask Questions
When you see something new or interesting, don't assume you know everything about it. Instead, ask questions.
Ask people who use it every day to help you understand how it works. Ask for the reason it was created.
Ask for the source of your item's history if you are interested in its past. Why did it evolve this way? What made its creators think it would work?
Asking questions helps you explore the subject further and lets you figure out if it's something you're interested in.
- Do More Than Just Watch
Google's work environment is one of my favorite things. Everyone has access to all types of information.
We have access to millions of books, thousands of magazines, and hundreds of newspapers. We can listen to music, watch movies, browse blogs, and visit websites.
It's like having your own library. You're not reading books, watching videos or listening to music. Instead, you are using these resources for solving problems, creating products and developing software.
Friends joke with me that I could probably write any book I wanted. But the truth is, I haven't written a word since high school because I'm too busy doing other stuff.
Instead of writing about things I don't know about, I'd rather learn.
- Listen to Podcasts, Read Books, and Watch Videos
The best way to learn is by reading books. Reading is a great way to learn new concepts. It also makes it easier to remember them later.
For example, the first time I heard about the scientific process, I was able to recall it much better than if a person had explained it.
Podcasts work in a similar way. You will likely listen to the same podcast episodes over and again if they resonate with you.
Finally, watching videos reinforces what you've heard and seen elsewhere. Video can also be used to enhance your skills.
- Learn From The Experts
The internet is filled to the brim with experts in all kinds of fields. So whether you want to learn about cooking, photography, business management, programming, or any other topic, there will be plenty of people willing to teach you.
Many of the most successful entrepreneurs were self-taught. They didn't go to college but instead taught themselves new skills by researching their interests online.
So start exploring! Make use of the internet to find out as much as you possibly can.
- Get Out Of Your Comfort Zone
To grow as a person we must push ourselves. This requires us to go beyond our comfort zone and try new things. It might feel scary at first, but once you try it, you'll realize it wasn't nearly as bad as you thought.
- Take Action
Do not wait to take action if you are determined to accomplish something. Instead, act now. Start now by taking action.
- Keep curious
Don't assume you already know everything about a topic. Ask yourself: "What else should I know?"
- Try New Things
Whatever your interest, there are always ways to expand it. If computers are something you're passionate about, then why not start your blog? Maybe you are into fashion and want to start your own YouTube channel.
- Have fun
It's possible to miss out on great experiences by living a serious life. You should stop taking yourself too seriously and learn to enjoy yourself.
- Don't Compare Yourself To Others
It is futile to compare yourself with other people. Each person is different and each has their own story.
Instead of comparing yourself with others, try to improve yourself each day.
- Keep Learning
Technology and the world are constantly changing. It doesn't matter if you think your knowledge is complete on a given topic.
This is why it's important to keep up to date with current trends and events. It will help you stay on top of new ideas.
- Don't Worry About What Other People Think Of You
It is easy to worry about what others think of you. Do you really want to make others look foolish?
The truth is that worrying won't make anything better. And there's nothing wrong with being proud of who you are.
