The ancient world had some impressive military forces. For example, Egypt was famed for its chariots and Greece for its navy. The Romans? They were famous for their foot troops, the legionaries. Yet an army is only as good as its leaders. In the case of the Roman army, these were the centurions, Rome’s most elite troops. Centurions were military officers famed for their experience and valor in battle. When a situation got rough, the common legionary turned to their centurion.
Who or What Was a Centurion?
As we will see, the role of the centurion evolved with the Roman army . Generally speaking, a centurion was an officer in the Roman army. Each centurion commanded a unit of legionaries numbering roughly one hundred (hence the name). As an officer, the centurion would assign his men duties, hand out punishments, and carry out various administrative duties.
The life of a centurion was not solely spent on the front line, however. After serving his time, a successful centurion could leave the bloodshed behind and become a high-level administrator of the empire. Being a pen-pusher was less glamorous than leading the charge in battle, but it was more lucrative and much safer.
Historical reenactor in centurion costume, from LEGIO SECVNDA AVGVSTA. (Hans Splinter / CC BY ND 2.0 )
Who Were the First Centurions?
In Roman tradition , the rank of centurion went back to Rome’s first army. The Roman army of the mid-8th century BC was led by Rome’s namesake, Romulus. He was said to have had 3,000 men under his command, led by thirty centurions. A quick bit of math tells us that each centurion led his own group of one hundred men. These infantry groups of one hundred men were called a manipulus. Each manipulus had its own standard (a signa).
The organization of the Roman military, and the forces under centurion control, changed over the centuries. Greek historian Polybius described the manipulus formations of the 3rd – 2nd century BC Punic Wars in his text The Histories (Cristiano64 / CC BY SA 4.0 )
Dionysus of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian from the 1st century BC, told a different tale. According to him, the centurion rank was of Etruscan origin. The rank was incorporated into the Roman army during the 5th century BC by the Etruscan king of Rome, Servius Tellius. The rank was granted to the army's bravest and most courageous men.
In reality, it is likely the role of the centurion was incorporated into the armed forces to help control Rome’s growing and constantly evolving army. By the end of the 6th century BC, the army was made up of two legions. Each legion was made up of around 4,500 men: 3,000 heavy hoplite infantry, 1,200 light infantry, and 300 cavalrymen.
The 4th century BC saw a further shake-up of the army. The manipuli were changed to be more flexible. They were now deployed in three lines of troops (called acies triplex) . Each centurion then only commanded a group of thirty infantry, allowing more micro-management.
The organization of the army had changed once again by the end of the 2nd century BC. Each legion then had 4,000 men. Legions were divided into thirty manipuli. Each manipuli had sixty centuriae units that answered to their centurion commander. To help him, this centurion was allowed to appoint his own junior officer (called an optio). Centurions were expected to take a position in the first rank of their troops during a battle and lead by example. This inevitably meant the centurions had a disproportionately high fatality rate .
If a centurion managed to live long enough, he could rise to the rank of primus pilus . The primus pilus was the most senior of all the centurions and was allowed a seat on the empire’s military council.
By the 1st century BC, the Roman army had gone through yet another restructuring. The army was split into different cohors (cohorts). Each cohort had six centuriae, which were in turn made up of one hundred troops and one centurion. Each legion had ten of these cohorts, bringing the number of centurions in each legion up to sixty.
A centurion's seniority depended on the type of troops he commanded and the seniority of his centuriae within his respective cohort. Hastatli was the lowest, meaning the centurion’s troops were young and inexperienced. After this came the principes, which meant they were experienced and respected troops. Finally came the pili, which meant the troops under the centurion's command weren’t just experienced, they were battle-hardened veterans.
A centurion’s seniority determined the skill level of his assigned troops. Lower ranked centurions might end up with hundreds of inexperienced legionaries. Bas-relief carving of a Roman legionary out of battle dress, c. 1st century AD (Magnus Manske / CC BY SA 3.0 )
Who Could Become a Centurion?
Perhaps surprisingly for such a respected role, the basic entry requirements to become a centurion were relatively low. Traditionally, most centurions were of the lower plebeian (common) class. By the 1st century BC, this had changed slightly, and the rank had become closely associated with the higher-ranking equestrian class .
You did not have to be Latin to become a centurion. There were five ways a soldier could become a centurion. A centurion could be appointed by election or by the Roman senate . If a legionary had shown particular bravery or leadership skills in the heat of battle, he could also be promoted from the ranks.
Things became more political during the Imperial period, and it became possible to become a centurion through a direct commission, with no prior military experience. There were even some rare cases of the emperor himself directly appointing centurions.
As the army evolved, so did the role of the centurion, and this meant the requirements became stricter. For the higher ranks, centurions were expected to be competent in administration. As things became even more political, the support of an influential patron became increasingly important.
It wasn’t all bad though. Centurions were eventually able to rise to surprisingly high levels within the empire. They could become mid-level officials like tribune or prefect, or even members of the Roman Senate itself. The greatest centurion success story is probably that of Emperor Maximinus Thrax (235-238 AD). Originally a centurion under Caracella, he rose through the ranks to become emperor.
A bust of Emperor Maximinus Thrax (235-238 AD). Although he rose through the military ranks to centurion and finally emperor, he never stepped foot in Rome as emperor (José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro / CC BY SA 4.0 )
The Uniform and Armor of a Centurion
The helmet of the centurion is perhaps one of the most iconic pieces of military equipment of all time. The helmet was called a galea and had a transverse crest along the top. The crest was usually silver and decorated with a plume of either dyed hair or feathers (usually ostrich or peacock).
The galea saw some evolution over the centuries. During the Imperial period, the crest could be front to back rather than transverse. Early helmets sometimes came with a faceguard or, even better, a mask. These masks were designed to frighten the enemy and were sculpted to resemble demons and monsters, much like the Oni masks worn by Japanese samurai. In the later Roman Empire, the helmet was decorated with silver insignia.
Modern reconstruction of a centurion's helmet, first century. The embossed eyebrows and the circular brass bosses are typical of the Imperial Gallic helmets. (MatthiasKabel / CC BY SA 3.0 )
Centurions were also better-armored than your average legionary. They wore decorated greaves (leg armor) called ocrae. To protect their torsos they commonly wore a bronze cuirass (breastplate) called a thorax studios . These cuirasses were either belly-shaped or sculpted to resemble rippling muscles.
Depending on the conditions they were fighting in, a centurion could choose to wear a lighter version of his cuirass called a linothorax. This was made of leather and offered more maneuverability. These armors for the torso also sometimes came with shoulder guards (humeralia).
The areas left unprotected, like the groin and arms, were protected by hanging leather strips ( pteryges). By the 1st century AD, advancements in armor design meant short-sleeved ringmail vests had become the armor of choice for most centurions.
Roman centurion armor (Thomas Quine / CC BY 2.0 )
Under their armor, a centurion wore a tunic, which was usually some shade of white or various shades of red. They could also wear a cloak called a sagulum which was either blue or green and bordered in yellow. The cloak was tied at the front with a fibula.
Just in case the centurion didn’t stand out enough already, he carried a 90 centimeter (35 inch) stick cudgel called a vitis latina . The centurion could raise this stick into the air to ensure his men knew where their commander was. There were two shields on offer, the circular clipeus or the rectangular scutum. While the centurion could choose his own shield, it seems they typically carried the same shields as their troops.
A historical reenactor in typical Roman centurion dress and armor, including leg armor and cudgel (Medium69 / CC BY SA 3.0 )
To top it all off, the centurion wore any awards they had received. These could be heavy necklaces called torques, bracelets called armillae, or medallions called phalerae. Unsurprisingly, with the way they stood out and led from the front, the centurions had a high mortality rate.
The Weapons of the Centurion
The weapons a centurion carried were largely a matter of choice. They typically carried a sword ( enis) and spear ( hasta). Unlike typical legionaries, a centurion wore his sword on his left side, not his right. A centurion could pick his own style of sword, but for much of the empire's existence, two styles were prevalent. These were the xiphos, a straight, double-edged sword, and the curved machaira.
Modern reconstruction of a xiphos (Phokion / CC BY SA 4.0 )
Later on, centurions began to wield a sword with a little more bling, the gladius hispaniensis . This sword came in at around 65 centimeters (26 inches) long, and came with either a trilobate or hemispherical pommel. The sword was carried in a silver scabbard that hung on a strap either over the shoulder or across the chest. It was also not unusual for a centurion to carry a dagger called a pugio. This was a 25 centimeter (10 inch) blade that hung from the belt and could be used to finish off wounded enemies.
Image of Roman legionary historical reenactor with Gladius sword, taken at the 2007 display of Roman Army Tactics, UK (David Friel / CC BY 2.0 )
What Did a Centurion Do?
The most basic duty of a centurion was to lead his men into battle. They were expected to lead by example by fighting bravely and refusing to surrender when the odds were against them. Any centurion who failed in this duty brought shame on his legion and faced the death penalty .
The upside of this was that most centurions commanded the respect of their troops. This was important, as centurions were responsible for training their legionaries, handing out duties, and dishing out reprimands. Having the respect of their men made all these duties that much easier.
Centurions were known as harsh taskmasters who weren’t afraid to dish out grueling punishments. They oversaw the building of camp fortifications, the digging of trenches, and roll calls. Centurions were responsible for the security of their camps, and it was down to them to issue the passwords which were used to enter the camp.
The centurions were seen as the best of the best, and this was often reflected in the military assignments they were given. They were selected for special missions, like raids into enemy territory and high-priority reconnaissance, making them akin to modern-day special forces.
As time went on, the centurion role shifted. By the 1st century AD, they were most commonly assigned to commanding the army's special police and intelligence units, called frumenttarii. They could also be assigned to command units made up of non-citizens, such as those from allied armies.
During the frumentarii’s early history, they were tasked with supplying grain to the military, delivering messages between the provinces and the empire, and collecting tax money. In later years, they became involved in special intelligence, spying, and assassinations. Detail from Trajan's Column, relief 81 ( Public Domain )
The most experienced centurions (if they lived long enough) trained troops as exercitores or acted as aides to governors. The most senior centurions joined war councils, where they helped come up with battle strategies or took part in peace talks with rival armies.
The centurions peaked in the Imperial Period. They could join the emperor’s personal bodyguard, the Praetorian Guard, and after sixteen years of service were eligible to join the evocati. The evocati were urban administrators, which could be an incredibly lucrative role.
Centurion pay wasn’t too bad either. In the late Republic, they were paid on average five times more than the average legionary. They also got a greater share of war booty. For example, in 64 AD Pompey gave each centurion a 1000 drachmas bonus, whereas legionaries only got 50. By the 1st century AD, centurions were at least paid fifteen times more than the men below them.
This isn’t all to say that the centurions didn’t have a dark side. Although famed across the empire for their honor and bravery, centurions weren’t above receiving a bribe or two. It was common practice for a centurion to bolster his already ample salary with bribes. These bribes often came from their men, who would offer coin in exchange for cushy assignments or promotion recommendations.
Conclusion
In ancient Rome, the centurions were the best of the best. They represented everything their men were supposed to aspire to be: disciplined, loyal, and fearless in the face of the enemy. They led by example and leapt head-first into the fray. Despite their fancy armor, this meant they had a fatality rate much higher than that of their men. Being a centurion was no cakewalk.
Sadly, as time progressed and the empire began to rot from the inside out, the role of the honorable centurion began to change. It became increasingly political and profitable to become a centurion. To this day, centurions are often held up as one of the greatest military leaders of all time; in their prime, it was a reputation they more than deserved.
Top image: Roman centurions like this were the backbone of the Roman army. Source: Fernando Cortés / Adobe Stock
By Robbie Mitchell
Frequently Asked Questions
What have been the greatest achievements made by humanity in the last fifty years?
One of the most significant achievements in humanity's history over the past 50 years has been our ability to communicate quickly and accurately across large distances. This is undoubtedly the greatest technological achievement in human history.
The internet is a collection of tubes that connect the world. But these tubes are made of fiber optic cables. Each cable can transmit information at speeds of up to 10 gigabits each second, which is more that 1 million times faster than the average broadband connection.
This technology allows us share ideas, knowledge, or culture around the world. It's no longer necessary to travel physically to another country in order to be able to instantly access all information.
Amazing advances in medicine and science have been made possible by our ability to share information. For example, scientists can now sequence genomes in a fraction of the time it took them to do it twenty years ago.
Technological advances have enabled researchers to simulate complex biological processes in real-time. This means that we can finally unlock the secrets of diseases like Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and cancer.
These breakthroughs could potentially save millions of lives.
But, this incredible technology comes with a drawback. In recent years we've come to rely heavily on the internet for our day-to-day activities. This reliance has led to several problems, including cyberbullying, online scams, and identity theft.
The greatest problem is yet to come. As more and more people become reliant on the internet, the risk of a global digital collapse increases dramatically.
As our dependence on the internet grows, so does our vulnerability to its failures. Businesses could lose billions of dollars in productivity if the internet stops working for any length of time. Our health records, financial transactions, and government communications would be compromised.
We already see early signs of what may happen if internet goes down. Just think back to Hurricane Sandy, when the storm knocked out power to many homes and businesses in the eastern United States. Hackers were able to use the internet outage within days to steal credit card numbers.
Many devices are connected to the internet within your own home. Amazon can be ordered through your fridge. Your car will be able to check traffic conditions, and even book service appointments. Even your lights are able to be remotely turned off. All of these are possible because all of them have tiny microprocessors in them that allow them communicate with one other over the internet.
When Hurricane Sandy hit the East Coast, these microprocessors could not transmit data across their networks. It meant that cars couldn't start and stop engines, fridges couldn’t order food, lights couldn’t be turned off, and refrigerators couldn’t order food. It caused chaos and confusion during an emergency.
The same could happen during a national crisis like a natural disaster or terrorist attack. Imagine how difficult would it be for police officers respond to crimes and medical emergencies. How would hospitals manage patient care without computers? What about communication among citizens and government agencies
Good news: The infrastructure to prevent this kind of thing from happening is already in existence. The infrastructure to support hurricanes is already in place, including water treatment facilities and power plants. However, they are not designed to withstand a massive cyberattack that could cause a loss of all electricity.
For instance, hackers could take over a nuclear reactor and close the facility in a matter of seconds. They could also contaminate the water supply and cause mass panic.
Even though the infrastructure exists, the real question is whether we will ever take the time to build resilience into our system.
Two scientists from MIT wrote a paper titled "A Failure Model of Cloud Computing" in 2005. They proposed a future that has no single point or failure. Every device is susceptible to many failures. As an example, let's say your smartphone gets fried and you lose your laptop. This means that both your smartphone and computer must be replaced.
For safety, we have been able in the past to rely on key components like telephone lines and electric grids. But as more people move towards cloud-based computing, we're putting more of our lives online. We rely on technology that hasn't been tested in real-world environments. Now that we are doing this, it is important to make sure those technologies are resilient enough for disasters like cyberattacks or hurricanes.
That's why I'm excited about the work being done by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). NIST is working together with industry professionals to develop standards that will allow us to build resilience in our technology. These standards will ensure that when we go online, everything works together seamlessly. No matter what happens to the power, our phones continue to work. Our refrigerators still order us dinner. Traffic reports tell us where the roads are.
By making sure our devices can communicate, you'll be better prepared to face any event.
What is the greatest achievement of human history?
It's a great accomplishment when you make a positive difference in the world and do something that makes a real difference. If you create something that's completely different from what was there before.
It doesn't matter how much you make or how many people help you, great achievement is measured by the impact you have on the world.
We don't find the answers to our greatest problems. We already know the answer. However, the most important achievements are those that alter the way we see life. That changed our perspective.
Many great accomplishments are often small, because they are achieved slowly and quietly. They may not even seem important at the time. However, they will have a lasting impact on your life.
There are two kinds of greatness: the one that lasts forever and that that fades away. It is possible to create something that people love and cherish for many generations.
This is why many people admire great accomplishments anonymously.
But great achievements fade away quickly. If someone tells you about them, you might not believe them. Because you have conditioned yourself to see greatness as something that is permanent.
It is easy to lose sight on the importance of greatness, as it fades so quickly. It could be said that great accomplishments are rare. These achievements are only achieved by a small number of people.
What are the Top 5 Innovations in Human History?
Fire was the most significant innovation in human history. The discovery of fire changed the way we relate to nature. It allowed us cook and kept warm in cold temperatures. It also allows us to control light/heat/electricity.
Fire gave rise to tools, weapons, even cities.
Fire gave us humans the ability to be more intelligent. We could now communicate better, we could learn faster, and we could travel farther.
Inventions such as writing, printing, and gunpowder followed shortly after. These inventions made information much easier to share.
These technological advancements brought social changes. For safety, comfort, and protection, people began to live together.
Human beings started to gather into larger groups and eventually became nations. This led to the development of governments, laws, and religions.
Finally, sanitation and medicine became more widespread. With these advances came the rise of the middle class.
All of these inventions created a space where humanity could flourish. Humanity had finally escaped from the cave.
Technology is changing the world today. We continue to create new technologies that make it easier, safer, and even more convenient.
Although we've come a long way, there are many challenges ahead. One of them is climate change.
Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. Burning coal, oil, and gas release carbon dioxide into the air.
Carbon dioxide traps heat near the Earth's surface, causing temperatures to rise.
This causes the glaciers to melt and then leads to an increase in sea level. Coral reefs are affected by rising ocean temperatures.
This renders coastal areas non-habitable.
As a result, millions of people have been forced to leave their homes. Many countries have declared war against climate change.
However, we must continue to develop new technologies despite all the above. Why not? We will die if you do.
What is the most important invention in the history of mankind?
This question is obvious if we look back on history. However, today's answers are not always the same. Some claim it was fire; others say electricity. Others say the printing press. Some mention penicillin. Some say the internet. Some say penicillin. Others say penicillin.
But that doesn't mean it matters because the real answer for everyone is the ability to communicate.
Communication is crucial for human progress. Communication is key to human progress. It allows us to grow, learn and evolve. We create art, we share our lives, we teach, we heal, we love, we laugh, we cry, we hope, we dream, we live, and we die.
The power of communication is why we are here.
It doesn't matter how many years pass, regardless of whether we are referring to the inventions or inventions of the Internet, or even the inventions of writing themselves, the answer will remain the same.
The invention is a way of communicating. The invention is a method of communicating knowledge, ideas or thoughts.
Communication is vital.
This is why we must invent.
What is the greatest achievement of mankind, fire?
Fire is a remarkable force of nature. It is also a symbol of energy and power. Because fire is so important in our culture, we even give names and numbers to days of the week according to how much fire they have. Tuesday is a day that the sun sets, so it means "fireday".
You can use fire to indicate more than heat. We use it to represent strength, power, passion, action, life, etc. So why is fire the greatest achievement for man?
Fire, which is the most powerful element in all of creation, represents the beginning, the end, and the destination. This makes it the best way to explain its versatility.
Fire isn't just about providing warmth and light. Fire is used by human beings to make art, cook food, provide warmth, and light for studying and reading.
But we also use fire to destroy - destroying trees to make paper or burning coal to produce electricity. Fire is used to kill livestock and to communicate with us.
So while fire may seem like a destructive element, it isn't. Fire is actually a beneficial element. It can help us survive, protect us, and even provide entertainment.
Which invention is the worst?
The most useful inventions can make our lives easier. Some inventions can cause great harm.
One example is the internal combustion motor. This invention fueled the industrial revolution and made our lives more convenient. However, when we use fossil fuels for energy, we also release carbon dioxide, which contributes to global warming.
Another invention is laser. This device can effectively destroy objects even miles away. It can also cause blindness or burns that can lead to death.
Another example is the atomic bomb. A city could be destroyed by an explosion from this weapon.
Inventions are great because they make life better. Sometimes, however, inventions can be dangerous. These harmful inventions are nuclear weapons, internal combustion engines (ICM), and atomic missiles.
Statistics
- Some 45 million nucleotides of insertions and deletions unique to each lineage were also discovered, making the actual difference between the two genomes ∼4%. (en.wikipedia.org)
- dating of two H.nalediteeth, to 253+82−70 ka, for an estimated age of the fossils of 253+82−17 ka. (en.wikipedia.org)
- Also proposed as Homo sapiens heidelbergensis or Homo sapiens paleohungaricus.[208]H. rhodesiensis, and the Gawis cranium[edit]H. rhodesiensis, estimated to be 300,000–125,000 years old. (en.wikipedia.org)
- The linear view of human evolution began to be abandoned in the 1970s as different species of humans were discovered, which made the linear concept increasingly unlikely. (en.wikipedia.org)
- In their seminal 1967 paper in, Sarich and Wilson estimated the divergence time of humans and apes as four to five million years ago, Science Progress in DNA sequencing, specifically mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (en.wikipedia.org)
External Links
doi.org
- Evolutionary Biology - The Hybrid Origin of "Modern Humans."
- ScienceDirect: The Mosaic Humans, a hybrid species
twitter.com
web.archive.org
nature.com
How To
How Toys Changed After World War II
World War II is one of the most catastrophic wars. It lasted from 1939 to 1945, and affected many countries. Many factors contributed to the conflict, including territorial ambitions. This conflict was also caused by many other factors. These included the rise of dictatorships, nationalism, racism, religious intolerance, totalitarianism, militarization, technological advances, and industrialization. All these factors resulted in a global-scale conflict that caused millions of deaths.
The war's effects were felt all over the globe. Many people lost their families, homes, belongings, and even lives. Many children were left orphaned after their parents died in wartime, while others found themselves homeless. Many countries sustained severe damage to their infrastructures such as roads, bridges and factories. This resulted is a loss of productivity, trade and economy. Other countries were affected by social unrest as well, including poverty, hunger, lack of education, unemployment, and starvation.
After the war ended countries began to rebuild their economies, and infrastructure. However, they faced some challenges, such as shortages of raw materials, labor force, and finances. They also needed to overcome the effects of the war, which took decades to recover.
New technologies were developed as a result. The creation of nuclear weapons was one example. It made it easier for cities to be destroyed. Also, the invention of radar systems allowed airplanes to fly at higher altitudes where they could avoid enemy fire. Finally, electronic devices like television, radio, and computers helped spread news faster than before.
Toys became more accessible and affordable after the war. The toys were no longer expensive and children didn't have to work very hard to get them. Parents no longer had to worry about whether their child would spend his/her allowance wisely. Instead toys were available in large numbers at low prices. Because everyone wanted to make a profit, there was less competition among toys manufacturers. This resulted in toys that were better quality.
The Second World War didn't just affect those who were affected by it, it also affected our daily lives. We have learned from the mistakes made in the past and have adjusted accordingly. We now live a better life than we did before.
Did you miss our previous article...
https://lessonsbeyondthestory.com/history-of-man/medieval-sex-rules-how-not-to-have-a-good-time
