By Jack Wilson
In 1204, the Mongolian warlord Temüjin adopted the Uighur script for his state and people. Two years later, he established the Mongol Empire and took the title of Chinggis Khan. What led an otherwise illiterate Mongol nomad to adopt a script, and how was it implemented in the new Mongol Empire? In this piece, we’ll look at the introduction and use of the written word in the early Mongol state.
Writing in Mongolia predates Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Empire by centuries. The most famous pieces of pre-Chinggisid writing in Mongolia are the Orkhon Inscriptions, stone monuments of the great Türk Empires (Göktürks) dating to the early eighth century. They were written in Old Turkic Runiform script and in the Old Turkic language. Recently, the Bugut inscription (c.580s) and Khüis Tolgoi inscription (c.early 600s) have been identified as the earliest known writing in a Mongolic language by Alexander Vovin, written in the Brāhmī script and Sogdian alphabet, and erected during the late Rouran Khaghanate and early first Türk Khaghanate. These scripts were also used in some administrative purposes as well, for the Sogdian script also appears on Türkic coinage.
Sporadic inscriptions from Chinese dynasties over the following centuries are also known in the Mongolian plateau (written in the Chinese, Khitan, and Jurchen languages). A well-known example is the Servan Khaalga Inscription, stands to mark the 1196 victory of the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) over the Tatars in eastern Mongolia.
The written language was thus not totally alien in the Mongolian plateau, though it was not particularly common. Where Chinggis Khan himself first encountered it, we cannot say. If he did indeed spend part of the 1180s seeking shelter in the Jin Dynasty of Northern China, he almost certainly would have come across Chinese characters, as well as learned of the Liao and Jin Dynasties’ creations of official scripts for the Khitan and Jurchen languages, respectively, used alongside Chinese for official purposes for these dynasties’ ruling ethnic groups. While there is no evidence that Chinggis ever learned to write Chinese (though some historians like Arthur Waley suggested he learned to speak it at a basic level), he would have seen its use in recording and in the administration of a large territory, while its complexity proved equally alienating. As he partook in the Jin Dynasty’s 1196 campaign against the Tatars, he may even have been present to see the initial carvings begin for the Servan Khaalga inscription that commemorates that victory.
From the late 1190s until 1204, Chinggis Khan was at war with, and finally overcame, the Naiman people, the most powerful group in western Mongolia. On their defeat, we are told in the Secret History of the Mongols and other imperial sources, the Mongols captured a Uighur scribe named Tata-Tongga. He was brought before Chinggis Khan, bearing with him the official seals of the Naiman Khan. On inquiry as to their purpose (as per Tata-Tongga’s official biography in the dynasty history of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the Yuan shi 元史), Tata-Tongga explained to Chinggis that the royal seals were an official certification. When a representative of the Naiman Khan went out to collect taxes, he bore documents with this seal to show he was certified for the task. As it turned out, Tata-Tongga was no mere adviser to the Naiman rulers, but had served as an official scribe and tax collector, using the Uighur script to record important data and tax records. How long the Naiman had used such a system is unclear, and some suggest as early as the tenth century. Whatever official records the Naiman kept were unfortunately lost with the Mongol conquest.
But Chinggis Khan immediately took to the idea. Unlike the thousands of distinct Chinese characters, the Uighur script was an alphabet, providing only a short list of letters to learn. The Uighurs, speaking a Turkic language, had adopted it from the great traders of early medieval Central Asia, the Sogdians. The Sogdians (speaking an Iranic language) were important advisers and bureaucrats in the Türkic and Uighur Empires. In turn, the Sogdians had taken their script from the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which used Aramaic for its writing, a descendant of the Phoencian scripts.
When the Uighurs adopted the Sogdian script around the eighth-ninth centuries, they began writing it vertically, in columns, rather than horizontally. The Uighurs also began writing it in cursive, and both practices were continued by the Mongols. It was not perfect, for the script lacked enough letters to distinguish all the sounds of Middle Mongolian, leaving many ambiguities. Regardless, Chinggis Khan was adamant in its usage. Once Tata-Tongga had adapted it to Mongolian as best he could, he was instructed to begin teaching Chinggis’ sons and nephews in it. For his efforts, Tata-Tongga and his family remained privileged members of the elite until the end of Mongol rule in China. A number of other Uighurs joined the Mongols soon after, and the voluntary submission of the Uighur Kingdom in 1209 brought an entire cadre of officials already skilled in it, as well as a number of ambitious young men who threw themselves into the task of mastering it, in order to find employ with the Mongol Khan.
Kul tigin Monument of Orkhon Inscriptions – Orkhon Museum, Kharkhorin, Mongolia -photo by Vezirtonyukuk / Wikimedia CommonsAmong the Mongols themselves, some took to it easily. Chinggis’ adopted-son (who was posthumously promoted to adopted-brother!) Shigi-Qutuqu became a master not just in reading, but writing. With the declaration of the Mongol Empire in 1206, Chinggis Khan could already establish a bureaucracy to go alongside it. Shiqi-Qutuqu was made chief-judge of the empire (yeke yarguchi). In the Uighur script, Shigi was to record legal decisions and maintain a population register. Much of this was to be recorded in the specifically made “blue books,” (kökö debtor). Members of the imperial keshig, the bodyguard, were selected for this, and were called bitikchi (bichigchi, bichechi), scribe.
It appears too that the decrees and declarations of Chinggis Khan were also to be written down. Eye-witness accounts, such as the biography of the Daoist master Qiu Chuji (Changchun) who visited Chinggis’ court in the early 1220s, attest to the presence of scribes who wrote down the Khan’s utterances. It is possible that the Jasagh (Yassa), or law-code, of Chinggis Khan was also written down at this point too, but this is a matter of debate. By the late thirteenth century, the descendants of Chinggis Khan certainly believed it had existed as a codified body of written law.
Though they do not survive in their original form, later sources such as the Secret History of the Mongols (1252), works of Rashīd al-Dīn (c.1300), and the Yuan Shi (1370) allow us to reconstruct or infer the earliest written Mongolian sources. Much of these consisted of genealogies of the ruling family and aristocracy. As Christopher Atwood and Hodong Kim have demonstrated, these were collected in the now-lost Altan Debter (Golden Books). Chapter eight, §202 of the Secret History of the Mongols lists the 95 commanders of 1,000 who were present at the establishment of the empire in 1206, as well as the peoples assigned to them. This likely reflects one of the early registers of the empire, a military list to record the who’s-who, and who they ruled.
During the reign of Ögedei Khaan (r.1229-1241), we see the first steps towards an official Mongol Imperial historiography. Christopher Atwood has reconstructed a set of documents which he dubs “the Indictment of Ong Khan,” preserved in the writing of Rashīd al-Dīn, the Yuan Shi and Shengwu Qinzheng lu 聖武親征錄 (c.1320). These are a series of speeches by Chinggis Khan critiquing his former ally Ong Khan of the Kereyid (which perhaps originally date even to the life of Chinggis himself) and an accompanying narrative which provides context to the Indictment (which shows greater use of Turkic words, which along with other indicators may mean it was written by a Kereyid).
In other articles, Christopher Atwood has demonstrated other now-lost narrative sources that emerged in the 1230s in the Uighur script, written for the Mongolian court and aristocracy. These included short biographies of military figures like Jürchedei and military reports of campaigns. Importantly, these were not replacements for oral history or intended for wide-audiences. They instead were for family purposes, glorifying relatives, or recording significant data for government use.
These disparate and distinct sources were ultimately condensed into more cohesive bodies. This was first in the reign of Möngke Khaan (r.1251-1259), in what became known as the Secret History of the Mongols, compiled on his order in 1252. This was an official chronicle written for the Mongolian royal family, setting out an approved narrative that fit Möngke’s needs: minimizing the role of non-Mongols in the state and undermining the reigns of Ögedei and Güyük Khaan (r.1246-48), from whose line Möngke had usurped the throne. Somewhat hypocritically perhaps, it also focused on a narrative that stresses the importance of fraternal unity.
During the reign of Khubilai Khaan (r.1260-1294), many of these same sources were also incorporated into a similar project, the Veritable Record, or Authentic Chronicle of Chinggis Khan. Though now lost, the Veritable Record can be reconstructed through its Chinese translations in the Yuan Shi and the Shengwu Qinzheng lu, and the account of Rashīd al-Dīn, who used the Mongolian original.
Lineage and transmission of the main “imperial” sources for the life of Chinggis Khan. Chart by Jack WilsonThe Mongolian courts made good use of the Uighur script for recording their history, even if these original documents do not survive. The earliest surviving piece of Mongolian in the Uighur script is the so-called Chinggis stone, or “Stele of Genghis Khan.” It commemorates an extraordinarily long arrow-flight, shot by Chinggis’ nephew Yisüngge on the return from the Khwarezmian campaign to Mongolia in 1224. It is usually dated to 1224, though the late Igor de Rachewiltz suggested the possibility of the 1240s, when Yisüngge had more prominence.
But we also see many other uses for the government’s needs, especially with the creation of a proper bureaucracy in the 1230s and a chancellery in the imperial capital of Qaraqorum in Mongolia. Influenced by Chinese government design, the Mongols created a Secretariat system to govern their growing empire. Controlled by a Central Secretariat in Qaraqorum, whose head served as the effective Prime Minister of the Empire, these Secretariats had divisions first in North China and Central Asia, later growing to include Western Asia and Iran, and finally the Rus’ lands. Qaraqorum’s most important population was the large number of scribes and translators based there to man the Central Secretariat and its branch contacts.
The Genghis Stone – photo by Neleto / Wikimedia CommonsNot only were the Great Khan’s orders written down and stamped with official seals in the Mongolian script, but tax records, census data, legal decisions, privileges and records, and other government information was compiled there. And then, an army of translators were tasked with putting these statements into the major languages of the empire. Letters of submission to various monarchs around the world were sent in the Mongolian script, usually accompanied by a translation. One such original Persian translation of a letter from Güyük Khaan to Pope Innocent IV still survives in the Vatican archives. Certain Persian chroniclers complained of the continued prominence their Mongol rulers placed on the Uighur script, and how anyone who learned it could rise high in the government even without other qualities.
The Mongolian-Uighur script continued to hold a pride of place even after the division of the Mongol Empire in the 1260s. Khubilai Khaan ordered the creation of a new script, the ‘Phags-Pa, which was hoped to be a new universal script for the Empire. Completed by 1269, it was named for its designer, the great Buddhist leader, the ‘Phags-Pa Lama. Based on the Tibetan script, it was 41 square-shaped letters written vertically and designed to capture the sounds of both Chinese and Mongolian. A delighted Khubilai mandated the script be taught to his sons and all officials, and government documents were to be issued in it. Surviving stone inscriptions, paper money, porcelain and state gerge/paizas (passports) from the Yuan period all feature the characteristic blocks of the ‘Phags-pa script. But aside from official and decorative purposes, the script never caught on even within the government, despite repeated proclamations from Khubilai for his officials to learn it. It could not even replace the Uighur-Mongolian script; the two often appear together on Yuan-era monuments.
Güyük Khan demanding Pope Innocent IV’s submission, held at the Vatican Secret ArchivesThe Uighur-Mongolian script held on even in the western khanates of the empire for select government and ceremonial purposes. It appears periodically on coinage in the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate and Golden Horde over the thirteenth and into the fourteenth centuries. Surviving in an Ottoman reproduction is a yarliq (decree) of the Golden Horde Khan Temür Qutlugh from the 1390s had Turkic written in both Arabic and the Uighur script. Also from the Golden Horde survive a few paiza and even a birch bark poem in Mongolian and Turkic in the Uighur script. Until the final days of the Ilkhanate, official seals and yarliqs continued to feature, or were written entirely, in Mongolian-Uighur script, and Il-Khans like Ghazan (r.1295-1304) are mentioned learning to read and write “both Mongolian and Uighur.”
At least one Ilkhanid successor state, the Jalāyirids, issued some coins with phrases in the Uighur script on them. For the Chagatai Khanate, the dry Turfan Basin has preserved a number of Mongolian-Uighur documents that indicate its internal use until late in the fourteenth century. And all indications are that Mongolian-Uighur documents were used for diplomacy between the khanates.
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Though it received sporadic usage for Turkic, the Mongolian-Uighur script never became adopted outside of these select circles. Not surprisingly, as the Mongols never appear to have made any effort, or had interest, in using it as a lingua franca. The Mongolian language and the Uighur script were for the use of the Mongols and their government. If anyone else picked it up, this was incidental. Persian, Chinese and various forms of Turkic were the most common linguistic intermediaries outside of government circles (and over the fourteenth century, this too increasingly was less of an exception).
When the Yuan Dynasty was pushed from China in 1368, they kept the Uighur script with them (while the ‘Phas-Pa did not survive the journey). The Uighur script received a few improvements to better distinguish the sounds in Mongolian, and a renewed Mongolian chronicle tradition of the seventeenth century (which incorporated parts of the Secret History of the Mongols) saw the writing of new histories using the old script. Furthermore, when the Manchu established their Qing Dynasty (1636-1912), they took the Mongolian-Uighur alphabet as the basis for the official Manchu script.
The old script continued in use in Mongolia until its division between “Outer” Mongolia (today’s independent country of Mongolia) and “Inner” Mongolia (the province in north China, south of the Gobi desert) with the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911-12. Inner Mongolia to this day retains the old script, though both its use, and knowledge of the Mongolian language, are challenged by sinicization efforts. Across the Gobi in Mongolia, being brought into the Soviet sphere of influence saw the adoption of Cyrillic as the official alphabet, which is still used predominantly today. Since the Mongolian revolution of the 1990s, there has been increasing interest to readopt the old script. It is now taught in schools and used for certain government and ceremonial purposes, and there are dreams of its widespread usage across all spheres of Mongolian life. Whether that can be achieved remains to be seen. Regardless it stands as a remarkable legacy of continued use some 800 years after the capture of Tata-Tongga.
Jack Wilson completed his MA thesis at Central European University, where he offered a reassessment of the life and career of Nogai and his role in the late thirteenth-century Golden Horde. He returned to CEU in Fall 2022 for his PhD, focusing on the Golden Horde in the late thirteenth century. You can visit the educational videos he creates about the Mongol Empire on Youtube at The Jackmeister: Mongol History.
Top Image: Chinggis Khan being shown a document in the Uighur Script, c.1206. Art by Jack Wilson
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Frequently Asked Questions
What were major inventions in the early history of mankind?
Now think about the greatest invention in human history. Imagine an inventor who created a device to allow us all to do the same thing, but for many more people.
What would that look like? How can we make it better It could change the course of history. How would you go about creating such a device if given the chance?
These questions will help determine where innovation starts.
Innovation is the ability or capability to solve problems in innovative and useful ways. Innovation is the key to solving any issue. Innovation means creating something entirely new.
Let's examine the difference between inventions and innovations. Invention refers to the creation of something new. Innovation is the act that improves upon an existing product. The bicycle was not invented until the wheel was in existence.
Both inventions and innovations require imagination and creativity. They also require different skills. Innovation is able to see things others can't. They can identify problems, think outside the box, and find solutions.
An investor can envision possibilities. They can move a concept from one idea or another. They can understand and explain their ideas so that others can follow them.
Innovation requires imagination. It requires being creative. You must be open to trying something new.
An investor must be willing to think differently. To think outside of their comfort zone. To push themselves to think outside their comfort zone and come up with innovative solutions.
A good inventor knows that finding the best solution doesn't always mean the easiest. Finding the right question may be the most difficult part.
An inventor does more than just solve a problem. They want to make it better. They want to make it better.
So, when considering your next invention, remember that you have two options:
- You can either make it or you can buy it.
- You can improve on what already exists.
If you choose to improve, you should know that the first step is defining a problem. The second step is to find out if there are other solutions.
Sometimes, the problem you are trying solving is no longer relevant due to its evolution over time. This is called obsolescence.
Another reason innovation fails is market saturation. There are just too many products to choose from. Therefore, there is not enough demand for a particular product.
This is why niche markets are so important. These are areas that offer growth potential.
Remember that your product may not be available in the marketplace yet. Test your idea. Please test it out. See if people want it.
Finally, ask yourself if the idea is worth keeping. Does your idea really make a difference? Can it improve on an existing product?
You have to move beyond your comfort zone in order to innovate. It is important to challenge yourself to think different. You should be open to learning more about the topic.
It is important to look for opportunities to try new things. And it would be best if you made mistakes along the way.
You can only discover what is possible by failing. Failure will teach how to succeed.
What is the greatest human achievement?
A great achievement is when you make a difference and when you do something that changes the world for the better. It's when you create something new and different that isn't available before.
It doesn't matter how much you make or how many people help you, great achievement is measured by the impact you have on the world.
It is not the ones that we discover answers that are the greatest achievements. We already know how to find the answer. But, the greatest accomplishments are those that change our outlook on life. That changed our perspective.
Sometimes, the most important achievements are small and slow because they occur quietly. They may not even seem important at the time. But later on, you'll look back and realize how far-reaching an effect they really had.
There are two types to greatness. The one that lasts forever is the best and the one that fades. You can create greatness that lasts forever by creating something people love for generations.
People tend to be more impressed by great achievements when they don't know their source.
But great achievements fade away quickly. You might not believe what someone tells about them. This is because you've grown accustomed to thinking of greatness as permanent.
It is easy to lose sight on the importance of greatness, as it fades so quickly. It could be said that great accomplishments are rare. It is rare that anyone ever achieves them.
What are the greatest achievements made by humans
Humans have created technologies such as the printing press, radio, television, computers, mobile phones, etc. Many people credit these inventions with changing our lives in profound ways. We might also be curious about the impact of these inventions on our lives.
The Internet has revolutionized almost every aspect and aspect of our lives. We now have access to information, education, entertainment, shopping, social networking, news, dating, and more. The list could go on and on.
Many inventions have a positive impact on our everyday lives. Inventions such as airplanes and automobiles make travel more convenient and quicker. In modern times, technology such as electricity, air conditioners, refrigerators and microwaves make life easier.
Technology is changing our lives every day. Innovations like smartphones, tablets and laptops, smart watches as well as self-driving cars and virtual reality (AI), enhanced reality (AR), and drones have improved our quality of life.
Technology is constantly changing. There are always new inventions, making it difficult to stay on top of the technology curve. So, it's important to learn about the latest technological advancements.
These 10 inventions have made our lives better.
- Printing Press
- Radio
- Television
- Computers
- Mobile Phones
- Airplanes
- Refrigerator
- Microwave
- Laptop
- Digital Camera
Nowadays, most people enjoy living in a high-tech society. This was possible centuries ago, but some would argue otherwise. But, books became easily accessible thanks to the invention of printing presses. Books were once reserved for priests, monks, and royalty. Nowadays, anyone can read.
Books play an important role in our every day lives. They are essential for learning, studying, and even learning new things every day. You may not know, but some parts are necessary for reading. You can interact with books by using your ears, eyes, nose and mouth.
Books are useful for learning, but do you know where else they are used? Books can be used for leisure, work, and exercise. You can use them to learn how draw from a book, or to create stories.
Next time you open a book, think of all the uses you can make. You may be surprised at what new uses it can have.
What are the greatest achievements accomplished by mankind in the last five decades?
Humanity's greatest accomplishment in the last fifty-years is its ability to communicate over great distances with unprecedented speed and accuracy. This is, without doubt, the single most important technological advancement in human history.
What we call 'the internet' is a series of tubes that connect our world. But these tubes are made of fiber optic cables. Each cable transmits information at a maximum of 10 gigabits per sec - that's more than 1,000,000 times faster then the average home broadband connection.
This technology allows us all to exchange ideas, knowledge, culture, and information across the globe. It's no longer necessary to travel physically to another country in order to be able to instantly access all information.
Our ability to share information is also responsible for incredible advancements in science and medicine. Scientists can now sequence genes in a fraction the time it took to do so twenty years ago.
A technological breakthrough has allowed researchers to create complex biological simulations in real-time. This is a breakthrough in our ability to understand the causes of diseases like Parkinson's, Alzheimer's and cancer.
These breakthroughs could save millions.
But, this incredible technology comes with a drawback. The internet has become a major part of our day-today lives in recent years. This dependence has caused many problems such as cyberbullying, identity theft, and online scams.
The problem might be even worse. The danger of a global cyber-crisis is growing as more people become dependent on the internet.
As internet dependence grows, so does our vulnerability. Businesses could lose billions of dollars in productivity if the internet stops working for any length of time. Our health records, financial transactions, and government communications would be compromised.
We already see early signs of what may happen if internet goes down. Think back to Hurricane Sandy. It knocked out power to many homes in the east. Hackers used the internet outage to steal credit cards numbers within days.
You'll see many devices connected to your internet in your home. Amazon can be connected to your fridge so you can order food online. Your car can track traffic and make service reservations. Even your lights can turn off remotely. Because they have microprocessors within them, all of these things can be communicated with each other via the internet.
These microprocessors were unable to transmit data over their networks when Hurricane Sandy struck the East Coast. This caused cars to stop and start, fridges to order food, and lights not turn on. It created chaos and confusion during an emergency.
This could also happen in a national emergency like a terrorist attack or natural disaster. Imagine how difficult it is for police officers and paramedics to respond to emergencies or crimes. Without computers, how would hospitals manage patient care? What about communication with government agencies and citizens?
Good news is, infrastructure exists to stop such an unfortunate event from happening. Water treatment facilities, power plants, and other vital services have been built to withstand hurricane-like events. However, those systems aren't designed to withstand a total loss of electricity generated by a large-scale cyberattack.
Hackers could, for example, take control of a nuclear facility and shut it down within minutes. They could also infect the water supply and cause panic.
Although the infrastructure exists, it begs the question: When will we get serious about building resilience in the system?
Two scientists from MIT published a 2005 paper called "A Failure Model For Cloud Computing". They presented a future in which there is no single point of failure. Each device can experience multiple points of failure. Imagine your smartphone losing its battery and your laptop both. Both your phone and computer will need to be repaired.
For safety, we have been able in the past to rely on key components like telephone lines and electric grids. As more people embrace cloud-based computing, more of their lives are online. We're trusting technologies that have not been extensively tested under real-world conditions. We need to make sure that these technologies can withstand disasters such as hurricanes and massive cyberattacks.
That's why I'm excited about the work being done by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). NIST is working with industry experts to develop standards to help us build resiliency into our technology. These standards will ensure everything is seamlessly integrated online. Even if power goes out, phones will still work. Our refrigerators still order us dinner. Our traffic reports continue to tell us the roads are clear.
And by ensuring our devices can communicate, we'll be better prepared for any event.
Why is fire the greatest achievement of man?
Fire is an amazing force in nature and a symbol that embodies power and energy. In our culture, fire holds so much significance that we name days based on how many flames they have. Tuesday, for example, is "fire day" since it's when sunset occurs.
Fire is also used to signify a lot more than just heat. We use it to represent strength, power, passion, action, life, etc. So why do we consider fire as the greatest accomplishment for man?
Fire, which is the most powerful element in all of creation, represents the beginning, the end, and the destination. This makes it the best way to explain its versatility.
Fire has many uses beyond providing heat and light. Fire can be used to create art, light the way for studying, cooking, heating, or even keep us warm.
But we also use fire to destroy - destroying trees to make paper or burning coal to produce electricity. Fire can also be used to kill animals and help us communicate.
So while fire may seem like a destructive element, it isn't. Fire is actually a beneficial element. It protects us, helps us survive and entertains.
What is the greatest invention of all time?
This question is obvious if we look back on history. However, today's answers are not always the same. Some say it was fire, some say electricity, some say the wheel, some say the printing press, some say the steam engine, some say the internet, some say penicillin, some say the telephone, some say the automobile, some say the airplane, some say the computer...
But it doesn't matter because the real answer is the same for everyone; it's the ability to communicate.
Communication is key to human advancement. Communication allows us all to grow and learn. We create art, we share our lives, we teach, we heal, we love, we laugh, we cry, we hope, we dream, we live, and we die.
Communication is why we're here.
No matter how many years pass, the answer to this question remains constant, no matter what the topic is: the inventions and inventions of language, internet, or writing.
The invention is a way of communicating. The invention is a means of sharing knowledge, ideas, thoughts, emotions, experiences, memories, dreams, hopes, fears, and desires...
Communication is essential.
We must invent.
Statistics
- Also proposed as Homo sapiens heidelbergensis or Homo sapiens paleohungaricus.[208]H. rhodesiensis, and the Gawis cranium[edit]H. rhodesiensis, estimated to be 300,000–125,000 years old. (en.wikipedia.org)
- With the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, as of 2012, estimates of the similarity between their DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%. (en.wikipedia.org)
- H. antecessoris knew from fossils from Spain and England that are dated 1.2 Ma–500ka.[205][206]refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old. (en.wikipedia.org)
- In their seminal 1967 paper in, Sarich and Wilson estimated the divergence time of humans and apes as four to five million years ago, Science Progress in DNA sequencing, specifically mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (en.wikipedia.org)
- Some 45 million nucleotides of insertions and deletions unique to each lineage were also discovered, making the actual difference between the two genomes ∼4%. (en.wikipedia.org)
External Links
nature.com
britannica.com
doi.org
- The Hybrid Origin of "Modern" Humans - Evolutionary Biology
- ScienceDirect: Mosaic humans, a hybrid species
livescience.com
How To
How toys changed after World War II
World War II was one the most destructive wars. It spanned 1939-1945 and affected many countries. The war was caused by several factors including territorial ambitions, ideological conflicts, political differences and economic interests. Many factors contributed to the conflict. These include the rise to dictatorships. All of these factors led to a global conflict that left millions dead.
The war had devastating effects on the world. Many people lost their homes and families, as well as their belongings and lives. Many children became homeless after the deaths of their parents. Many countries suffered extensive damage to their infrastructure such as factories and roads, bridges, railways. Schools, hospitals, etc. This led to a decline in productivity, economic growth, and trade. Other countries were affected by social unrest as well, including poverty, hunger, lack of education, unemployment, and starvation.
After the war ended countries began to rebuild their economies, and infrastructure. However, they faced some challenges, such as shortages of raw materials, labor force, and finances. They had to also overcome the effects from war, which took many decades to recover.
New technologies emerged as a result. The invention of nuclear weapons allowed for easier destruction of cities. Invention of radar systems also allowed planes to fly at higher altitudes and avoid enemy fire. The rapid spread of news was made possible by electronic devices, such as radio, television, and computers.
Toys were more affordable and easily available after the war. It was no longer necessary for children to work hard to purchase toys. Parents no longer had to worry about whether their child would spend his/her allowance wisely. Instead, toys were sold in large numbers and at low prices. There was also less competition among toy manufacturers because everyone wanted to profit. Because everyone wanted to make a profit, there was less competition among toys manufacturers.
In conclusion, the Second World War impacted not only the people who suffered through it but also the way we live today. We have learned from the mistakes made in the past and have adjusted accordingly. Today, we live better than ever before.
Did you miss our previous article...
https://lessonsbeyondthestory.com/history-of-man/was-geronimo-really-a-good-leader
