One of the great paradoxes of humankind is its capacity for combining destruction with creativity in the wars in which it engages. In the case of World War I aircraft, the artwork that their crews devised had a function beyond mere self-expression. At a time when only larger, more powerful aircraft could carry radios, unit markings were a means of recognition and identification in the air.
France, ever the trendsetter in fashion, established a principle that was followed to various degrees by its allies, especially the Americans. An agreed-upon escadrille (squadron) insignia was painted or stenciled on the fuselage side, with an Arabic numeral ahead or aft of it to identify the individual pilot.
Famous French Emblems
There were a handful of exceptions to that basic pattern, such as escadrille N.103, whose personal aircraft were identified by Roman numerals aft of its stork insignia, or the famous N.124 “Lafayette,” each of whose pilots sported a personal motif such as an initial, a monogram, a band, or a star aft of the Indian head.
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Also unusual were the different numbers and colors of fuselage bands to identify the crews of Br.128, whose emblem was a red scarab beetle. Sop.63’s Sopwith 1.A2s sported a parrot, with different-colored feathers for each plane, while similarly those of Sop.287 had a court jester, each with a different colored cowl.
The most famous emblem among French fighter units was the stork, a bird long known for its migrations from, and always back to nest in, the chimneys of Alsace—a winged metaphor for France’s ambition of returning to Alsace since its annexation by Germany in 1871. Captain Antonin Brocard, commander of N.3, and an artistically inclined observer, Adjutant Charles Borzecki, devised the stork and a stencil that allowed it to be applied in a variety of colors, depending on the light or dark fabric on a particular Nieuport’s fuselage.
With 175 confirmed victories to its credit, Spa.3 (as it was designated when its Nieuports were replaced by Spads) was the highest-scoring squadron in the French air service and produced the most aces, including second-ranking French ace Georges Guynemer. After N.3 was made the flagship squadron of a fighter group to achieve local air superiority in November 1916, all the other escadrilles assigned to Groupe de Combat 12 replaced their existing insignias with storks in different attitudes of flight. Several underwent changes in the course of the war; soon after N.26 joined GC.12, it replaced its burning torch with a stork designed by a Japanese pilot in its ranks, Captain Kiyotake Shigeno, whose stork, by no coincidence, looked more like a crane.
Some escadrilles acquired their insignias from recognized artists of the age. When Captain Georges Matton and his executive officer, Lieutenant Armand de Turenne, conceived of a crowing rooster head for N.48, artist Jacques Nam worked up the definitive version. A Swiss volunteer in the unit, Jacques Roques, had the face of a young lady as a personal marking on his Spad VII hand-painted by his Parisian friend, artist Georges Lepape.
The commander of Spa.78, Captain Armand Pinsard (27 victories), flew Spad VIIs with black fuselages, on the sides of which were a “white leopard of Borneo,” and another in gold, designed by Théophile Steinlen, a Swiss-born painter who had settled in France to become a leading illustrator of art nouveau. In April Steinlen was painting black leopards on the fuselages of Spa.78’s other aircraft, with Arabic numerals for individual identification. Spa.173 received its bird of paradise marking from Jean-Gabriel Domergue. The Bréguet 14.B2s of Br.129 had a rabbit carrying a vagabond’s pack, and the Spad XVI two-seaters of Spa.bi.278 had a laughing rabbit, both created by Benjamin Rabier, an illustrator of children’s literature. Cartoonist Marcel Jeanjean provided the clown insignia of Salmson 2A2 escadrille Sal.252.
Jean-Jacques Berne-Bellecour portrays second-ranking French ace Captain Georges Guynemer(53 victories) beside his Spad VII of escadrille Spa.3, its stork emblem visible.
On at least two occasions the artistic refinement came from American volunteers of the Lafayette Flying Corps. In November 1916, N.124 adopted the sobriquet of “Escadrille Lafayette” and an Indian head insignia based on the logo of the Savage Arms Company. In April 1917, however, two pilots who had been architects before the war, Edward F. Hinkle and Harold B. Willis, decided the emblem was too bland.
A Connection with Kellogg’s Corn Flakes
“It was a rather round Indian head,” Willis said in a postwar interview, “and Hinkle and I thought we could do one that would be a little more distinctive from a distance. Also we wanted to achieve an insignia that, from extreme distances, would give out a blotch of red, white and blue, even if you couldn’t make out the Indian head.”
The result, for which the two men designed a stencil, appeared on Spa.124’s Spad VIIs until February 1918, when the Escadrille Lafayette was transferred en masse into the U.S. Army Air Service as the 103rd Aero Squadron. Not only did that “Sioux” head remain as the 103rd’s emblem, but when it became the nucleus of the 3rd Pursuit Group, three variations on Indian heads were adopted by its three other components, the 28th, 93rd, and 213th Aero squadrons (in clear emulation of the stork variations of French GC.12 and GC.21, whose five escadrilles were identified by diagonal fuselage bands in different color combinations).
At the end of 1917, escadrille Spa.81 adopted a greyhound as its insignia. Initially it took several hand-painted forms, but in March 1918 the squadron got an American pilot through the Lafayette Flying Corps, Sergeant James Alexander Bayne, who had attended the Chicago Art Institute and, among other things, had designed the Kellogg’s Corn Flakes package before the war.
“Alec Bayne was engaged in the Foreign Legion for the duration of the war,” said Spa.81 pilot and five-victory ace Pierre Cardon in an interview. “An art student and a very good designer, it was he who improved the design of our greyhound insignia and made up the stencil to reproduce it on all Spa.81 airplanes….” Tragically, Bayne was accidentally killed while test-flying a newly delivered Spad XIII on May 8.
How French Plane Fashion Influenced Americans
The basic format of French aircraft eventually became the template for marking the aircraft of its allies. In 1917 Italy’s units were identified by either their numbers, as was the case with the 76th, 78th, 81st, and 82nd Squadriglie de Caccia, or common insignias like the 77th Squadriglia’s red heart and the 91st’s griffon. As early as 1916, Russian squadrons were sporting insignias, most notably the black skull and crossbones on the white rudders of fighters of the XIth Corps Air Detachment, and the white skulls and crossbones on the black rudders of the XIXth Corps Air Detachment.
Early renditions of Spa.81’s greyhound before being standardized in the spring of 1918.
The most regimented user of the French-inspired marking system was the U.S. Army Air Service. By August 1918 the 103rd Aero Squadron had seen the last of its personal motifs replaced by yellow Arabic numerals, and all squadrons from then on combined a unit insignia with a different colored number on the fuselage sides, and the upper and lower wings, often supplemented with different colored bands on the upper wing opposite the number. Additionally, pursuit squadrons that were subdivided into flights often had them identified by cowlings painted red, white, or blue. Personal markings were usually limited to names inscribed under the cockpit.
Besides the Native American insignia of the 103rd Aero Squadron, the most famous American emblem was, according to Lafayette Flying Corps pilot John W. F. M. Huffer, a personal marking—a stovepipe hat marked in red, white, and blue, as worn by Uncle Sam—that he used while with escadrille N.62, but introduced to the 94th Aero Squadron when he was given command of it in March 1918. On March 28, Major Raoul Lufbery led First Lieutenants Douglas Campbell and Edward Rickenbacker on their first armed patrol over the front, followed the next day by First Lieutenants Thorne C. Taylor and John Wentworth.
Upon their return to base at Gengoult, the squadron surgeon, Captain Paul H. Walters, raised a cheer by proposing that since the 94th’s hat was now “in the ring,” it be identified accordingly. Wentworth, an architect in civilian life, developed the definitive form of the insignia, with Huffer’s Uncle Sam hat flying through a red band. When the 94th became the basis around which the 1st Pursuit Group was organized, its sister unit, the 27th Aero Squadron, adopted a “screaming eagle,” the 95th used a kicking mule inspired by its equine mascot Jake, and the 147th used a rat terrier that its commander, Major Geoffrey H. Bonnell, remembered from his days in the Royal Flying Corps.
British reserve—And German “Flying Circuses”
In stark contrast to France and most of its allies, Britain’s Royal Flying Corps came to favor a subdued marking system that discouraged self-expression on its aircraft. Aside from the national markings, squadrons were represented by bars or geometric figures in white against an olive drab finish, with letters or Arabic numbers for the individuals and red, white, or blue wheel hubs to represent flights.
The Royal Naval Air Service often indulged in colorful personal markings, but that ended on April 1, 1918, when the RFC and RNAS were amalgamated into the Royal Air Force.
As for the enemy, the first German identification system is alleged to have come about when Manfred Freiherr von Richthofen, commander of Jagdstaffel 11 and then Germany’s top living ace, first painted his Albatros D.III red all over.
When his men protested that he would become a marked man in the sky, he and they worked out a sort of compromise, with all aircraft in the Staffel given red noses and wheel hubs, and individual fuselages or tails painted in colors of the pilot’s choice.
Variations on that theme became the norm in most German fighter squadrons, using colors representing the army regiment, region, or city from which the pilot came, or even the family coat of arms. Collectively, they presented the Allies with a colorful array of opposition that explains why the British referred to their most proficient units as “flying circuses.”
By late 1917 Austria-Hungary had come to emulate the Germans in principle, although most of its Fliegerkompagnien limited their unit colors or markings to the wheel hubs.
The most successful or famous units to emerge from the first worldwide air war have sustained the traditions they established through a number of conflicts since. The emblems and the heritage they represent live on, albeit smaller or in more subdued colors, on warplanes today.
this article first appeared in military history quarterly
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Frequently Asked Questions
Who was Douglas MacArthur?
He was an American soldier commander, politician, diplomat and author. He was also an inventor, engineer, educator and explorer.
He was a Missouri native, born in 1880. His father was killed when he young. He was forced to leave school before his age to support the mother and siblings. He joined the army when he was sixteen and rose quickly through his ranks. He served in the Spanish-American War in Cuba and was awarded two medals for valor. After the war, he became involved in politics and helped create the Philippine Army.
Jean Faircloth (who he had met in Japan) was his first wife. Arthur Jr. Robert, Mary and Mary would be the three children they would have together. He led the successful invasion of northern Luzon, World War I's first major wartime invasion, while serving as the commander of The Philippine Division. In 1935, he was discharged from active duty and returned home to the Philippines. During the Second Sino-Japanese War he was Chief of Staff for the Allied Expeditionary Force.
MacArthur is most well-known for leading the Allied Forces' victory against the Japanese Imperial Forces at the Pacific Theatre of Operations in World War II. MacArthur ordered that Leyte Island's landing site be moved to the south due to bad weather conditions. This led to heavy casualties among the troops. This decision led to the defeat of the initial operations in Leyte. MacArthur was able to plan the Battle of Okinawa after his return to Australia. This resulted the capture of the entire island. For these actions, he was awarded the Medal of Honor.
MacArthur remained a member of Congress after his return to America. He was elected president the United States in 1952, 1954. He was in charge of the Korean Armistice Agreement as well as the supervision of the US troop withdrawal from South Korea.
MacArthur published many books in his retirement years including Strategy and Command (1959), Memoirs (1963), and Reminiscences (1956). He founded the Military History Institute of California and published his autobiography, Years of MacArthur (1966). He died on April 5, 1964.
General Douglas MacArthur, one of the most famous soldiers of history, has been inducted into numerous halls of fame.
What happened during the Gulf War
The Gulf War was an event that changed the world forever. It was the most difficult and costly military operation since World War II. But the most important aspect of the war was the concept behind it.
This concept was called "Shock and Awe". It had two main purposes: 1) To shock and 2) to awe our enemy.
Saddam Hussein, who was totally unprepared for the surprise, was able to execute his plan. He didn't know what was coming. We took advantage of his lack of knowledge and used our technology to create fear and confusion for him.
The next step was making sure he knew exactly where he was. So, we bombed Iraq in precision-guided missiles. This gave us the confidence to concentrate on the second goal.
Our strategy was scaring him to the point that he would immediately surrender. Our goal, however, was to make him give up without any bloodshed.
To do this, it was necessary to prove to him that we aren't going down. He and his regime could be in serious trouble if we do this.
We wanted to demonstrate that we are serious about our business. We were serious about winning this battle.
This was achieved by dropping bombs upon Baghdad. It shocked both the Iraqi army & government. This forced them to retreat and leave Kuwait which allowed us liberate it.
The result was that the Iraqis lost their war. Their economy crashed and they never recovered from the attack.
Saddam Hussein was captured and tried for crimes against humanity. Although he was sentenced to death, he was later released because of health issues.
Since then, Iraq's suffering has continued. Their infrastructure has been destroyed and terrorists now control it.
Who won the Battle of Gettysburg
This battle took place near Gettysburg in Pennsylvania during the American Civil War (1861-1865). General Ulysses S. Grant's Union Army defeated Confederate troops led By General Robert E. Lee (1807-1870).
The battle's outcome had an enormous effect on both sides. It was the turning point for the war. It marked the turning point of war for the Confederacy. For the Union it was the beginning of the end to slavery.
Lincoln's famous "Emancipation Proclamation" was issued in 1863. It freed slaves who were living in rebel states. He signed the 13th Amendment of the Constitution in 1865, which abolished slavery across America.
General Robert E. Lee surrendered in Appomattox Courthouse to General Ulysses S Grant (Virginia), on April 9, 1865.
Lee was made a prisoner after the surrender. He died in 1870.
Grant was awarded a Medal of Honor in recognition of his leadership during battle.
He died in 1885.
Who were among the first to use weapons in warfare?
Since thousands of years ago, guns have been used by humans.
They were initially used only by the wealthy and powerful, but they became more popular with common people.
For instance, the Qin Dynasty (221-221 BC -206 BC), introduced the first gunpowder weapons in China.
Additionally, until 1406, the Mongols used bows-and-arrows to guide their troops. Then they switched to firearms.
King Francis I, France's King, issued a decree in 1522 requiring everyone to have a gun.
And finally, in 1526, Henry VIII ordered every man between 18 and 60 to learn how to shoot a weapon.
What are the differences between Military History and other fields?
There are many similarities among military history and other disciplines.
All of these subjects share one thing: they all deal with facts. They tell us what happened in specific places and at particular times. They give details about what was said, done, and who won and lost. They explain how things worked out.
Military history, however, differs from all other disciplines in two crucial ways.
- It is concerned with the past. Its focus is on the past, not the present. It tells us the history of our ancestors.
- It focuses on individual actions. It examines the thoughts & motives of real people instead of abstract abstractions like power, money, and ideologies.
As a result, military history can be described as a branch of history that examines the impact of armed conflict on society.
It explains why wars are fought, how they were won and lost, as well as how the world's history has changed over time.
A unique set of characteristics can also be found in military history.
First, it involves studying a wide variety of sources. All sources contribute to the story about World War I. These include official reports, letters and diaries, interviews as well as photographs, films, paintings and maps.
It gives an extensive account of battles. The reader will discover how armies moved.
Third, military histories reveal the motivations behind decisions made in wartime. What made generals attack or defend particular cities? What were the reasons behind the strategic choices made?
Fourth, we can learn from military history how people react to stress. Soldiers needed to adapt to new situations and learn new skills. How did they react when faced with the enemy? Are they afraid? Did they panic? Did they show courage? Did they run away? Or did they try to save themselves by surrendering?
Finally, military histories are often used as teaching tools. The students read about past conflicts, then they discuss them with one another, and finally, they write papers summarizing their learnings. Students are able to understand history from their own experiences.
Statistics
- Of all services, the U.S. Army has paid the heaviest price since 911, with almost 42,000 active, guard, and reserve soldiers killed or wounded while serving overseas, according to Department of Defense figures. (militaryhistoryonline.com)
- Of military historians, 0% are Socialist, 8% are Other, 35% are Liberal, and 18% are (en.wikipedia.org)
External Links
usacac.army.mil
jstor.org
web.archive.org
- Documenting Shock and Awe in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom
- HELLAS:NET - Warfare
How To
What were the countries involved in the Korean War and how many did they participate?
In 1950, North Korea was supported by the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the United States of America and other allies supported capitalist Republic of South Korea.
China reached a separate agreement after the fighting broke out with the Communist North Koreans.
China sent troops through the 38th Parallel as support for their ally. This led to the Korean War.
The war was finished in 1953. The North Korean military forces began to retreat into China.
The Armistice Agreement, signed June 25, 1953 was made. Both sides agreed to withdraw armies.
However, the agreement never was fully implemented. In July 1955, fighting resumed.
It ended on July 27, 1952. All hostilities ceased after a truce was reached.
The conflict resulted in the deaths of an estimated 3,000,000 men. This makes it the deadliest conflict since World War II.
