By Kay Smith and Ruth R Brown
Few weapons were so feared or as evocative as the axe used by the Vikings in their feuds and in battle, as well as on their raids throughout Europe in the eighth and ninth centuries and beyond. With its long shaft, wielded in both hands, its iron head and sharp edge, it was formidable indeed – cleaving heads and bodies at a single blow. But what was it really like?
Outside the ancient borough of Pickering on the edge of the Yorkshire Moors is the Anglo-Saxon church of St Andrews. Inside, the visitor will find reminders of the time the Vikings occupied this part of England, some 30 miles from the Jorvik Viking Centre in York: two stone crosses depicting ninth-century Norse warriors, seated on a grand chair or throne, surrounded by their arms: sword, spear, or halberd, shield, seax, and, by their left side, that most feared of weapons, the Viking battle axe.
The warrior and his weapons, including an axe, at St Andrew, Middleton, Ryedale, North Yorkshire – photo by Amanda Slater / Wikimedia CommonsAxes are mentioned frequently in contemporary literature, particularly in the Icelandic sagas, and are depicted in Viking arts. They were often highly prized and given names such as ‘Witch of the Helmet’, ‘Wolf of the Wound’, ‘Fiend of the Shield’ or ‘Woundbiter’, while the Norwegian king Eric Haraldsson is better known by his nickname, the evocative Eric Bloodaxe.
In his history of the Scandinavian kings, Heimskringla, the Icelandic poet Snorri Sturluson includes a poem describing how King Magnús throws off his mail coat, takes up Hel, the personal battle-axe of his father St Óláfr, and sets about his enemies. The passage reflects how a revered weapon can take on its own name and personality, cherished enough to pass from father to son:
With broad axe, unwearied,
went forth the ruler
sword-clash happened round the Hǫrðar’s
head—and threw off his mailcoat,
when the shaft-land was shared out the shaping guardian of Heaven
Hel clove pallid craniums—
the king’s two hands encircled…
And of course many axes have survived, often recovered from archaeological contexts, displaying a range of shapes and sizes.
Types of axesDespite the ubiquity and iconic status of battle-axes, surprisingly there has been little modern work on them. However, Jan Petersen laid the foundation for researching Viking weapons in 1919 in his book on the Norwegian Viking sword. He identified some ten different types and labelled them A through M. Within his classification, however, two main types of axe can be identified. The first, the skeggǫx or bearded axe, has an asymmetrical head, the lower edge extending downwards like a beard. There are a number of variants depending on the size and shape of the beard, noted by Petersen as types B, C, D and E. In some cases, as in Petersen’s type C, the beard is very extreme and the blade length many times the width of the rest of the head. Bearded axes date from as early as the 8th century and were probably developed from the agricultural or wood-working axe.
A Viking “bearded axe” blade circa 1000 (top), and a German horseman’s axe blade circa 1100 (bottom). Photo by Incitatus / Wikimedia CommonsThe second type, the breiðǫx or broad axe, Petersen’s types L and M, is roughly triangular in form, narrow near the haft and flaring out at both the top and bottom to form a broad cutting edge some 15-20 cm (6-8 inches) long. This is the classic ‘Danish’ axe, frequently depicted in sculpture and noted in the sources, which becomes common after about 1000. A number of smaller axe types also survive which may be used either as tools or for throwing.
Most surviving axes are undecorated, but some highly ornate examples have been found. One famous example is from Mammen in Jutland in Denmark and is inlaid with designs in silver; it has given its name to the Mammen style of decoration. This particular axe has been dated from dendrochronology of wood remains in the grave where it was found to sometime after AD 971 when the tree was felled.
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The Mammen axe is among the few examples where the haft has survived; unfortunately even these few are broken and incomplete so that it is not possible to know how long they were. The axe shown in the Middleton sculpture is quite short – perhaps 1 metre (3 feet) in length – while those shown on the Bayeux Tapestry are longer, perhaps nearer 1.5 metres (5 feet). It is likely that the length of the haft reflected the size of the head – in general, the larger the head, the longer and stouter the haft. Shorter axes could also be used as concealed weapons, under a cloak or behind a shield, and also as a secondary weapon after a sword.
A ‘Danish’ Axe discovered in the Thames River. it dates from the 11th century. Photo by Medievalists.netThe axe was often used along with a sword, spear, or halberd, a shield, and a seax – a combination shown on the two aforementioned Viking sculptures of warriors from Middleton in North Yorkshire: the first cross has all these weapons on, while the second, smaller sculpture shows an axe and a seax. Often a combination of these weapons has been recovered from graves across the Viking world of the North Atlantic. Others have been recovered from rivers, such as the number found in the River Thames near the old London Bridge, along with spears and a grappling iron. These may have been dropped into the river as sacred deposits, or lost at the time of Cnut’s attacks on London in the early 1000s.
Wielding the axeThe battle-axe’s effectiveness as a weapon is amply demonstrated by references to them in the Icelandic Sagas which tell of fights and feuds being settled by a single well-aimed blow from an axe. It was usually the head of the enemy that was targeted, which shows that many were long-handled and were swung over the head at one’s enemy. For example, when Egil was six years old, he is said to have driven an axe through the head of a playmate because of an earlier humiliation after losing a game.
Elsewhere in Egil’s Saga, an incident is described in which an axe is embedded up to its shaft in the helmeted head of a Viking warrior. In attempting to retrieve his weapon from his victim’s head, the assailant pulled on the axe with such force that his victim’s body was swung into the air and over the side of the ship they were fighting on. Another example which shows their force is this:
Then Karli ran to the Jómali. He saw there was a thick necklace on his neck. Karli swung his axe and struck the band that the necklace was fastened with on the back of his neck in two. The blow was so heavy that Jómali’s head flew off.
An axe striking a horse in the Bayeux TapestryAxes could also be used in other ways. One intriguing reference shows how an axe was used to advantage:
Þórir went to the fence and hooked his axe up onto it, hauling himself up after it, thus getting in over the fence on one side of the entrance.
Intriguingly we also have concrete evidence of the effectiveness of the axe. During excavations in 1995 in Mosfell Valley in Iceland, the skeleton of a man was found who had died from two blows to the head from an axe. The report states that the:
gaping defect in the right side of his head exhibits all of the diagnostic features of an axe wound. Especially important is the abrupt termination of the injury at one end. This feature and the straight, clean-cut edge of the wound are both characteristics of the injuries produced by the heavy blades of sharp, short-bladed, chopping weapons such as Viking battleaxes.
The report goes on to say:
Both of these wounds would have severed major endocranial blood vessels. The massive brain damage and blood loss resulting from them would have rendered him almost immediately unconscious as his blood pressure plummeted. Within a minute or so, this exsanguination would have resulted in irreversible shock followed by death.
The use of the axe as a fighting weapon continued through the eleventh century but it appears to have gradually fallen out of use, its place taken by the lance and sword of the medieval knight.
Perhaps it is as well that we leave Middleton church, that the Viking warriors there might not take exception to us and dispatch us with their battle axes…
Kay Smith and Ruth R. Brown are leading experts in medieval weaponry. Learn more about their work on Basilicoe.com or follow them on Twitter @GunpowderGal and @Basiliscoe
This article was originally published in Medieval Warfare magazine. Click here to buy that issue.
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is the greatest human achievement?
When you make a difference, and change the world for the better, that's a great achievement. When you create something entirely new that wasn't there before.
The measure of great achievement isn’t how much money you earned or how many people your efforts helped. It’s measured by the positive impact that you made on the world.
The greatest achievements aren't the ones where we find answers. We already know the answer. The greatest achievements are those which change our perspective on life. That changed our perspective.
Small achievements can often be overlooked because they occur slowly and quietly. They might not be important at the moment. Later, however, you will realize how important they were.
There are two types of greatness; the kind that lasts forever and the kind that fades away. Greatness that lasts for generations is created by making something people love and treasure over time.
It's because great achievements are often achieved anonymously, as people tend to admire them more when it's not known who did it.
But great achievements fade away quickly. If someone tells you about them, you might not believe them. This is because you're used to considering greatness permanent.
Because greatness is so easy to forget, it can be easy to lose track of its importance. Great achievements are rare, you might say. Only a handful of people achieve these great achievements.
What were major inventions in the early history of mankind?
Think of the most important invention in human history. Now, imagine an inventor creating a device that allows us to do exactly the same thing for even greater numbers of people.
How would it look? What would it look like? Would it change the world forever? How would you go about creating such a device if given the chance?
These questions will allow you to identify where innovation begins.
Innovation is the ability solve problems in new and useful ways. Innovation is the key to solving any problem. Innovation means to make something new.
Now, let's consider the difference between invention and innovation. The act of inventing something new is known as invention. Innovation is the act that improves upon an existing product. The wheel, for example, was created long before it was made possible by the invention of the bicycle.
Inventions as well as innovations require creativity and imagination. These skills require different skills. Innovation is able to see things others can't. They are able identify problems, think outside the box and find solutions.
An investor can envision possibilities. They can take a concept from one idea to another. They can explain and understand what they are trying to do so that others can benefit.
Innovation requires imagination. It requires being creative. You must be open to trying something new.
An investor must be willing and able to think differently. To move beyond their comfort zone. To challenge themselves to find unique solutions.
A good inventor knows that finding the best solution doesn't always mean the easiest. Sometimes, the hardest part of the process is finding the right question.
But an inventor does not just want to solve a problem. They want to improve on something. They want it to be better.
When you are considering your next invention, there are two options.
- You have two options.
- You can improve upon something that already exists.
You can improve your life by identifying the problem first. The next step is to determine if another person has solved the problem.
Sometimes, the problem that you are trying solve might no longer be relevant because it has changed over the years. This is obsolescence.
Another reason innovation fails is market saturation. Too many products are available for consumers to purchase. This means that there is little demand for products.
This is why niche markets or specific industries are important. These are areas of growth.
Be aware that your product might not be in demand yet. That is why you need to test your idea. Please test it out. It is worth testing to see if it is popular.
Last but not least, consider whether or not your idea is worth considering. Does it really have any merit? Is it going to improve on something that works?
You have to move beyond your comfort zone in order to innovate. It is important to challenge yourself to think different. You should be open to learning more about the topic.
It is important to look for opportunities to try new things. You should also be willing to make mistakes.
Failing is the only way you can discover what is possible. Failure will teach you how success is possible.
What is the greatest achievement in medicine?
Modern medicine has been revolutionized by penicillin's discovery. Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin was a surprise to him. His discovery led directly towards the creation of antibiotics which saved millions of people's lives.
This breakthrough changed the world forever. We live longer and healthier lives today.
Fleming discovered an antibiotic, but he did much more. He also discovered a method for growing large amounts of bacteria. This enabled scientists to study them for their first time.
Fleming's discovery gave us insights into our bodies and diseases that we couldn't have imagined before. For example, it allowed doctors to identify the cause of tuberculosis.
The discovery of penicillin led to major changes in public healthcare policy. People with infections like meningitis and pneumonia were previously treated with toxic drugs.
However, penicillin has been proven to be effective in curing patients.
Since its inception, penicillin has been used to treat bacterial infection. Penicillin is today considered to be the greatest medical advance of all time.
Fleming’s breakthrough is noteworthy for two reasons. First, he was working solo and alone from the rest of scientific community.
Second, he published the results in Nature journal.
He was able to publish the results of his research because he knew exactly how it had turned out. He was a pioneer.
He wasn't certain where his research would lead him but he followed his instincts. It paid off. This is why I consider him the father of microbiology.
Alexander Fleming died in 1955, aged 65. He spent his entire life working at St Mary's Hospital London.
He retired and returned to Scotland. He lived there until his passing.
What is the greatest achievement in science?
Since our discovery of how to harness flame for heat, we have come far. However, there are still many areas for improvement.
Scientists have achieved the greatest scientific successes when they have had an idea and made it a reality. Science is often motivated by curiosity.
Sometimes, it takes more that curiosity to discover the truth. Sometimes you need a goal. A vision. A goal to reach.
My belief is that the most important scientific discoveries have been made when people pursue an idea with fervor.
They would try to find ways to transform their ideas into realities, even if these realities weren't completely clear at the time.
This requires that you think big, take risks, make mistakes, learn from them, and be bold.
It doesn't matter if you succeed or fail. This is the most important lesson. It doesn't matter if you succeed or fail. What matters is that your tried.
It is important to find a way that you can keep going, despite failures, criticism, rejection, or setbacks. As long as you keep trying, you'll eventually reach success.
Don't fret about the end result. Be positive along the way.
What inventions did you think had a negative outcome?
This list contains examples of inventions that have caused harm to society.
Gunpowder was created during wars. It eventually led to mass shootings. It is estimated that 10,000,000 people died as a result of this invention.
The inventions of electricity, steam engines, and cars have made our lives so much easier. They have made our lives much easier. However, they also cause many problems, such as pollution, accidents, noise, traffic jams, etc.
Guns were the catalyst for millions of deaths. Because of the ease with which these weapons could be used, people started to murder each other. This problem exists today.
Radioactive radiation was released into the environment by the invention of nuclear power plants. Many scientists believe that we live in the worst era of human history.
There have been many attempts to invent something that would revolutionize our lives. Some were successful while others failed.
Which invention is the worst?
The best inventions make it easier to live comfortably. However, some inventions can be dangerous.
One such invention is also the internal combustion engine. This invention was essential to the industrial revolution. It also made life easier. Global warming is caused by the release of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels.
The laser is another invention. The laser can be used to destroy objects up to a mile away. However, this device can also cause blindness and burns as well as death.
Another example is also the atomic bomb. An entire city could be destroyed by the explosion of this weapon.
Inventions are amazing because they make life easier. Sometimes, however, inventions can be dangerous. These harmful inventions include lasers and internal combustion engines, nuclear weapons, and atomic blasts.
Statistics
- Some 45 million nucleotides of insertions and deletions unique to each lineage were also discovered, making the actual difference between the two genomes ∼4%. (en.wikipedia.org)
- In their seminal 1967 paper in, Sarich and Wilson estimated the divergence time of humans and apes as four to five million years ago, Science Progress in DNA sequencing, specifically mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (en.wikipedia.org)
- Also proposed as Homo sapiens heidelbergensis or Homo sapiens paleohungaricus.[208]H. rhodesiensis, and the Gawis cranium[edit]H. rhodesiensis, estimated to be 300,000–125,000 years old. (en.wikipedia.org)
- This migration out of Africa is estimated to have begun about 70–50,000 years BP, and modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing earlier hominins either through competition or hybridization. (en.wikipedia.org)
- dating of two H.nalediteeth, to 253+82−70 ka, for an estimated age of the fossils of 253+82−17 ka. (en.wikipedia.org)
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How To
How toys changed after World War II
World War II was one the most destructive wars. It lasted from 1939 to 1945, and affected many countries. There were many causes to the war, including territorial ambitions and political differences as well as ideological conflicts and economic interests. This conflict was also caused by many other factors. These include the rise to dictatorships. All of these factors contributed to a worldwide conflict that claimed millions of lives.
The effects of war were felt around the world. Many people lost their families, homes, belongings, and even lives. Many thousands of children were left homeless or orphaned by the deaths of their parents in the conflict. Many countries sustained severe damage to their infrastructures such as roads, bridges and factories. This caused a loss in productivity, economy, trade, and other consequences. Other countries suffered from social unrest, poverty and starvation, as well as lack of education and unemployment.
After the war was over, countries started to rebuild their economies and infrastructure. However, they faced some challenges, such as shortages of raw materials, labor force, and finances. It was also necessary to overcome the devastating effects of the war that took many years to recover.
New technologies were developed as a result. It was easier to demolish cities with nuclear weapons, for instance. Invention of radar systems also allowed planes to fly at higher altitudes and avoid enemy fire. Electronic devices, including television, radio, computers, have made news more accessible than ever before.
Toys became cheaper and more easily accessible after the war. It was no longer necessary for children to work hard to purchase toys. Parents didn't have worry about whether their child would use his/her allowance in a responsible manner. Instead, toys came in large quantities at low prices. Because everyone wanted to be profitable, there was less competition among toy makers. As a result, toys of higher quality were more popular.
In conclusion, the Second World War impacted not only the people who suffered through it but also the way we live today. We have learned from past mistakes and adapt accordingly. We now live a better life than we did before.
